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THE ARMS OP THE UNITED STATES,
AND OF THE SEVERAL STATES OF THE AMERICAN UNION.

"L/

HISTORY

OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

ON A PLAN

ADAPTED TO THE CAPACITY OF YOUTH,

AND DESIGNED

TO AID THE MEMORY BY SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT AND
INTERESTING ASSOCIATIONS.

BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH.

Containing General Views of the Aboriginal Tribes — Sketches of the Discoveries

and Settlements made by different Nations — the Progress of the Colonies —

the Revolution — the several Administrations, including those of

Jackson and Van Buren, and of Harrison, Tyler. Polk, and a

part of Taylor's — the whole interspersed with Notices

of the different Eras of the Progress of Manners,

Religion, Trade and Commerce, Agriculture,

Arts and Manufactures, Population

and Education.

ILLUSTRATED BY EUGRAVIN&S.

TO WHICH IS ADDED, THE

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

REVISED AND ENLARGED FROM FORMER EDITIONS,

AND

BROUGHT DOWN TO 1850.

BOSTON:

JENKS, PALMER & CO

1850.

Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1850,

BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

PREFACE.

In the year 1834, the present work underwent a thorough
revision, involving several important alterations and additions ;
the latter in compliance with a suggestion of the late distin-
guished principal* of the Female Seminary in Wethersfield, Ct.,
whose public recommendation of the work was as flattering as
it was unexpected. It had then reached nearly its fiftieth edi-
tion. Since that revision, it has been annually issued, to meet
the demands of a growing population, to the present time.

Meanwhile, time has travelled on, and the important adminis-
trations of Gen. Jackson and Mr. Van Buren, and the short but
eventful administration of General Harrison, and those of Mr.
Tyler, of Mr. Polk, and a part of Gen. Taylor's, have transpired.
This edition includes the principal events of each, down to this
date ; many of them very interesting and momentous to the
rising generation. As to time, therefore, the work is now as
complete as can be desired. The principal object of dividing
the History into periods is, to aid the memory by presenting
certain marked eras, from which the whole subject of dates may
be readily and distinctly viewed.

Two sizes of type are employed. The matter in larger type
is designed to give a, brief outline of the History of the United
States, and may be read in connection. The matter in smaller
type is to be regarded rather in the light of notes, which, without
studying exact regularity, are thrown in as they may subserve
the purposes of illustration and completeness in the delineation
of events, or as they may contribute to support the interest and
establish the recollections of the reader.

March. 1850.

* P^ev. Joseph Emerson.

£n1

-_■■-

INTRODUCTION.

The study of History presents the following advantages : —

1. It sets before us striking- instances of virtue, enterprise, courage^
generosity, patriotism ; and, by a natural principle of emulation, in*
cites us to copy such noble examples. History also presents us with
pictures of the vicious ultimately overtaken by misery and shame, and
thus solemnly warns us against vice.

2. History, to use the words of Professor Tytler, is the school of
politics. That is, it opens the hidden springs of human affairs ; the
causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions and fall of empires : it points
out the influence which the manners of a people exert upon a govern-
ment, and the influence which that government reciprocally exerts upon
the manners of a people : it illustrates the blessings of political union,
aRd the miseries of faction ; the dangers of unbridled liberty, and the
mischiefs of despotic power.

3 History displays the dealings of God with mankind. It calls
upon us often to regard with awe his darker judgments ; and again it
awakens the liveliest emotions of gratitude for his kind and benignant
dispensations. It cultivates a sense of dependence on him, strength-
ens our confidence in his benevolence, and impresses us with a convic-
tion of his justice.

4 Resides these advantages, the study of History, if properly con-
ducted, offers others, of inferior importance, indeed, but still they are
not to be disregarded. It chastens the imagination 5 improves the
taste ; furnishes matter for reflection ; enlarges the range of thought j
strengthens and disciplines the mind.

5. To the above it may be added, that the History of the United
States should be studied, 1. Because it is the history of our own coun-
try 2. Because it is the history of the first civil government ever
established upon the genuine basis of freedom. 3. Because it furnishes
lessons upon the science of civil government, social happiness, and
religious freedom, of greater value than are to be found in the history
of any other nation on the globe. 4. Because it presents uncommon
examples of the influence of religious principle. 5. Because an ac-
quaintance with it will enable a person better to fulfil those dutie«
which, in a free government, he may be called to discharge.
1#

GENERAL DIVISION.

The History of the United States of America may be
divided into Seventeen Periods, each distinguished by
some striking characteristic, or remarkable circumstance.

The First Period will extend from the Discovery of
America by Columbus, 1492, to the first permanent Eng-
lish settlement in America, at Jamestown, Virginia, 1607,
and is distinguished for Discoveries.

Obs. Previous to the discovery of America in 1492, the inhab-
itants of Europe, Asia, and Africa, were of course ignorant of its
existence. But soon after this event, several expeditions were
fitted out, for the purpose of making discoveries in what was
then called the " New World." Accordingly, between 1492 and
1607, the principal countries lying along the eastern coast of
North America, were discovered, and more or less explored. Aa
our history, during this period, embraces little more than accounts
of these expeditions, we characterize it as remarkable for discov-
eries.

The Second Period will extend from the Settlement of
Jamestown, 1607, to the accession of William and Mary
to the throne of England, 1689, and is distinguished for
Settlements.

Obs. During this period our history is principally occupied in
detailing the various settlements, which were either effected or
attempted, within the boundaries of the United States. It in-
cludes, indeed, wars with the natives — disputes between proprie-
tors of lands and colonies — the formation of governments, &c.
&c. ; but these are circumstances which pertain to, and form a
part of, the settlement of new countries. As this period embraces
the settlement of most of the original states in the Union, viz.
Massachusetts, including Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New
Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Delaware, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, it is there-
fore characterized as remarkable for settlements.

GENERAL DIVISION. 7

The Third Period will extend from the accession of
William a?id Mary to the throne of England, 1689, fo
the declaration of the war by England against France,
called " the French and Indian War," 1756, and is re-
markable for the three wars of King William, Queen
Anne, and George II.

The Fourth Period will extend from the Declaration
of War by England against France, 1756, to the com-
mencement of hostilities by Great Britain against the
American Colonies, in the battle of Lexington, 1775, and
is distinguished for the French and Indian War.

The Fifth Period will extend from the Battle of Lex-
ington, 1775, to the disbanding of the American Army
at West Point, New York, 1783, and is distinguished
for the War of the Revolution.

The Sixth Period will extend from the Disbanding of
the Army, 1783, to the Inauguration of George Wash-
ington, as President of the United States, under the
Federal Constitution, 1789, and is distinguished for the
Formation and Establishment of the Federal Con-
stitution.

The Seventh Period will extend from the Inaugura-
tion of President Washingto?i, 1789, to the Inauguration
of John Adams, as President of the United States, 1797.
This period is distinguished for Washington's Adminis-
tration.

The Eighth Period will extend from the Inaugura-
tion of President Adams, 1797, to the Inauguration of
Thomas Jefferson, as President of the United States,
1801. This period is distinguished for Adams's Admin-
istration.

The Ninth Period will extend from the Inauguration
of President Jefferson, 1801, to the Inauguration of James
Madison, as President of the United States, 1809. This
period is distinguished for Jefferson's Administration.

The Tenth Period will extend from the Inaguration
of President Madison, 1809, to the Inauguration of James
Monroe, as President of the United States, 1817. This

S GENERAL DIVISION.

period is distinguished for Madison's Administration,
and the late War with Great Britain.

The Eleventh Period will extend from the Inaugu-
ration of President Monroe, 1817, to the Inauguration of
John Quincy Adams, as President of the United States,
1S25. This period is distinguished for Monroe's Ad-
ministration.

The Twelfth Period will extend from the Inaugu-
ration of President Adams, 1S25, to the Inauguration of
Andrew Jackson, as President of the United States,
1829. This period is distinguished for Adams's Adminis-
tration.

The Thirteenth Period will extend from the Inaugu-
ration of President Jackson, 1829, to the Inauguration of
Martin Van Buren, as President of the United States,
1837. This period is distinguished for Jackson's Ad-
ministration.

The Fourteenth Period will extend from the Inau-
guration of President Van Buren, 1837, to the Inaugura-
tion of William Henry Harrison, as President of the
United States, 1841. This period is distinguished for
Van Buren's Administration.

The Fifteenth Period will extend from the Inaugu-
ration of President Harrison, 1841, to the Inauguration
of James K. Polk, as President of the United States,
1845. This period is distinguished for Harrison's and
Tyler's Administrations.

The Sixteenth Period will extend from the Inaugu-
ration of President Polk, 1845, to the Inauguration of
Zachary Taylor, as President of the United States, 1849.
This period is distinguished for Polk's Administration.

The Seventeenth Period commences with the In-
auguration of President Taylor, 1849, and embraces the
most important events to the year 1850.

UNITED STATES

PERIOD 1.

DISTINGUISHED FOR DISCOVERIES.

Extending from the Discovery of San Salvador, oy
Columbus, 1492, to the first permanent English Settle'
ment at Jamestown, Virginia, 1607.

Sec. 1. The honor of first making known to the in-
habitants of Europe, the existence of a Western Conti-
nent, belongs to Spain, as a nation, and to Christopher
Columbus, a native of Genoa, as an individual.

After the discovery of America by Columbus, other nationa
laid claim to this honor ; and thus attempted to deprive the
Genoese navigator, as well as the Spanish nation, of the merit to
which they were justly entitled.

The only nations, however, who appear to have had even the
semblance for such a claim, were the Welsh and Norwegians.

By the former, it was maintained, that the continent was dis-
covered by Madoc, son of Owen Gwynneth, who, returning to
his country, again sailed for the land he had discovered, about the
year 1170, taking with him ten ships, and 300 men, for the purpose
of founding a colony. Of the fate of this expedition, nothing
was ever known. As it is well established, however, that the first
voyage of Madoc was not a long one, it is justly inferred, that the
land, to which he was leading his colony, could not have been
more westerly than the islands in the Atlantic, situated about
half way between the Eastern and Western Continents, now
known by the name of the Azores.

The pretensions of the Norteegians were founded upon the dis-
covery of an unknown land, some time in the eleventh century,
by one Biron or Biorn, an Icelander. During a voyage to Ice-
land, which, with Greenland, had been discovered and settled at
an earlier date, Biron was driven south-east by a storm, and fell
in with a country, to which, from its abounding with vines, he

10 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

gave the name of Vincland. In his account of this voyage, tha
description given of the appearance of the sun, in the country
discovered, would seem to indicate, that it lay in latitude about
44 degrees.

The fruits found there bore a resemblance to those now found in
Newfoundland, or the country about the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Upon these uncertain data, the Norwegians founded their claims
to a priority in the discovery of America ; but, on Biron's return,
his discovery appears to have excited little interest among his*
countrymen, and to have slept in forge tfulness, until after Co-
lumbus had established the existence of a Western World.

2. The voyage of Columbus, which led to the forego-
ing important discovery, and of which Ferdinand and
Isabella, the sovereigns of the united thrones of Castile
and Arragon, were patrons, was commenced on the 3d
of August, 1492 ; at which time, the Genoese navigator
sailed from Palos, an inconsiderable seaport in Spain,
with a fleet, consisting of three small vessels, manned
by ninety seamen. On the morning of the 12th of Oc-
tober following, he fell in with an island, called by the
natives Guanahani ; but to which he gave the name of
San Salvador. This island, known on English maps
by the name of Cat Island, belongs to the great cluster
of the Lucayos, or Bahama Islands. During the same
voyage, he discovered several other islands, among
which were the important ones of Cuba and Hispaniola

Columbus, whose discovery of the above islands led the way
to a knowledge of the existence of a Western Continent, was
born in the city of Genoa, about the year 1435 or 1436. His fa-
ther was a reputable and meritorious man ; by occupation, a wool
comber, long resident in the city of Genoa. Columbus was the
eldest of four children, having two brothers, Bartholomew and
Diego, and one sister.

His early education was limited ; but he diligently improved
the advantages, which the means of his father enabled him to enjoy.
After spending a short time at the University of Pavia, he re
turned to his father, whom he assisted in wool-combing.

His enterprising disposition, however, prompted him to more,
active employment ; and, at the age of fourteen years, we find
him entering upon a sea- faring life.

Having spent some time in the service of a distant relation, wha
followed the seas, he repaired to Lisbon. He was at this time
about 34 years of age ; a tall, well-formed, vigorous man j enter-

DISCOVERIES.

prising in his disposition, and uncommonly dignified in his man
ners. Taking up his residence, for a time, at Lisbon, he be*
came acquainted with, and married the daughter of a distin-
guished navigator, the former governor of Porto Santo, an island
in the vicinity of Madeira, about 700 miles south-west from
Lisbon.

The father of his wife being dead, Columbus resided with his
mother-in-law, who gave him the privilege of examining the pa-
pers, charts, journals, and memorandums, of her deceased husband.
These made Columbus acquainted with many important facts and
suggestions, touching the great enterprise in which the Por-
tuguese were, at that time, engaged, viz. the discovery of a pas-
sage to the East Indies, by doubling the southern extremity of
Africa.

To a mind inquisitive and enterprising like that of Columbus,
this subject was invested with the deepest interest and importance
And the more he read and reflected upon the figure of the earth,
the stronger was his belief, not merely that a western passage to
India was practicable ; but that whoever should be sufficiently
enterprising to navigate the Atlantic, by sailing due west, must
meet with a large body of land, which might be an extension
of the continent of India, designed to balance the lands lying
in the eastern hemisphere.

In this latter opinion, he was strengthened by various discov-
eries in the Atlantic, such as pieces of carved wood, trunks of
huge pine-trees, &c, which had been noticed, after long westerly
winds ; but especially by . the well-established fact, that the
bodies of two men had been cast upon one of the Azore islands,
whose features differed from those of any known race of people.

Having matured the plan of a voyage, with the above object
in view, he first offered to sail under the patronage of the Portu-
guese ; but, being disappointed in this application, and despairing
of assistance from Henry VII. of England, to whom he had sent
his brother Bartholomew, but who, being captured, did not reach
England for some time, he repaired to Genoa, and offered to sail
under the auspices of that republic. Finding, however, his native
state not in a situation favorable to such an undertaking, he next
repaired to Spain.

By what route, or by what means, Columbus reached Spain, is
uncertain. The first trace we have of him, in this country, is
as a stranger, on foot, and in humble guise, stopping at the gate
of the Convent of Santa Maria de Rabida, not far from the little
seaport of Palos, and asking of the porter a little bread and water
for a child — his son Diego, whom his deceased wife had left to
him. While receiving this humble refreshment, the prior of the
convent, happening to pass by, was struck with the appearance of
the stranger, and observing, from his air and accent, that he was
a foreigner, entered into conversation with him, and soon learned
the particulars of his story.

12 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

The prior was a man of extensive information, and entered
warmly into the views and plans of Columbus. Through his in-
fluence, the enterprising navigator was, at length, enabled to lay
his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella, then on the united
thrones of Castile and Arragon.

For a time, these sovereigns were deaf to his application; but,
at length, the queen undertook the enterprise, in behalf of the
crown of Castile, and, to defray the expense of the outfit and
voyage, parted with her royal jewels.

The necessary funds being thus provided, a fleet, consisting of
three small vessels, was, at no distant time, in a state of readiness for
the voyage. Two of these were light barks, called caravals, not
superior to river and coasting craft of more modern days. These
were open, without deck in the centre, but built high at the prow
and stern, with forecastles and cabins for the accommodation of
the crew. The names of these vessels were the Pinta and Kind.
The ship of Columbus was decked, and of larger dimensions.
She was called the Santa Maria. On board this fleet were
ninety mariners, together with various private adventurers — in
all, one hundred and twenty persons.

On Friday, the 3d of August, 1492, early in the morning, the
squadron of Columbus set sail from Palos, steering in a south-
westerly direction for the Canary Islands, from whence it was
his intention to strike due west.

Passing over many interesting incidents in their outward voyage
— the storms and tempests which they encountered — the de-
lusive appearances of land — their hopes and their fears — their
high-wrought excitement, and then their deep dejection — the
murmurs, and even mutinous spirit of the crew, and the happy
expedients of Columbus to raise their courage, and to keep burn-
ing within them the spirit of the enterprise — we arrive at the 11th
of October, at which time the indications of land were so strong,
that, at night, Columbus ordered a double watch, on the forecas-
tle of each vessel, and promised to the first discoverer of the long-
looked-for land, a doublet of velvet, in addition to the pension of
thirty crowns, which had been offered by Ferdinand and Isabella.

The greatest animation now prevailed throughout the ships ;
not an eye was closed that night. As evening darkened, Columbus
took his station on the top of the castle or cabin, on the high poop
of his vessel. However he might carry a cheerful and confident
countenance during the day, it was to him a time of the most painful
anxiety. And now, when wrapped by the shades of night from
observation, he maintained an intense and unremitting watch,
ranging his eye along the dusky horizon, in search of the most
vague indication of land. Suddenly, about ten o'clock, he
thought he beheld a light glimmering at a distance. Fearing
that his eager hopes might deceive him, he called to Pedro Gu-
tierrez, gentleman of the king's bed-chamber, and demanded
whether he saw a lijjht in that direction ; the latter replied in the

DISCOVERIES.

affirmative. Columbus, yet doubtful whether it might not be
gome delusion of the fancy, called Rodengo Sanchez, of Segovia,
and made the inquiry. By the time the latter had ascended the
round-house, the light had disappeared. They saw it once or
twice afterwards, in sudden and passing gleams, as if it were a
torch in the bark of a fisherman, rising and sinking with the
waves, or in the hand of some person on shore, borne up and down
as he walked from house to house. So transient and uncertain
were these gleams, that few attached any importance to them.
Columbus, however, considered them as certain signs of land,
and, moreover, that the land was inhabited.

They continued their course until two in the morning, when
a gun from the Pinta gave the joyful signal of land. It was first
descried by a mariner, named Roderigo de Friana ; but the reward
was afterwards adjudged to the admiral, for having previously
perceived the light. The land was now clearly seen about two
leagues distant; whereupon they took in sail, and laid to, waiting
impatiently for the dawn.

The morning at length arrived, October 12th; and before the
delighted Spaniards lay a level and beautiful island, several
leagues in extent, of great freshness and verdure, and covered
with trees like a continual orchard.

Columbus, in a rich dress, and with a drawn sword, soon after
landed with his men, with whom having kneeled and kissed the

*14 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

ground with tears of joj-, he took formal possession oi' the island,
in the name of Queen Isabella, his patron. On landing, the
Spaniards were surprised to find a race of people quite unlike
any that they had ever seen before. The}' were of a dusky cop-
per color — naked — beardless, with long black hair, floating on
their shoulders, or bound in tresses round their heads. The na-
tives were still more surprised at the sight of the Spaniards,
whom they considered as the children of the sun, their idol. The
ships they looked upon as animals, with eyes of lightning, and
voices of thunder.

Having spent some time in an examination of this island, he
proceeded to visit several others not far distant; and at length,
(in the 28th of October, came in sight of the important island of
Cuba, and not long after fell in with the island of Hispaniola, or
San Domingo.

Having spent some time in examining the country, and in an
amicable traffic with the natives, Columbus set sail on his return.
He was overtaken by a storm, which had nearly proved fatal.
During the storm, Columbus hastily enclosed in a cake of wax
a short account of his voyage and discovery, which he put into a
right cask, and threw it into the sea. This he did, hoping that,
if he perished, it might fall into the hands of some navigator, or
be cast ashore, and thus the knowledge of his discovery be pre-
served to the world. But the storm abated, and he arrived safe in
Spain, March 15th, 1493.

For this discovery, it being the first, and having laid the
foundation for all the subsequent discoveries in America, Colum
bus was doubtless entitled to the honor of giving a name to the
New World. But he was robbed of it by the address of Ameri-
cus Vespucius. This adventurer was a Florentine, who sailed to
the New World in 1499, with one Alonzo Ojeda, a gallant and
active officer, who had accompanied Columbus in his first voyage.
On his return, he published so flattering an account of his voyage,
that his name was given to the continent, with manifest injustice to
Columbus.

After this, Columbus made several other voyages, but did not
discover the continent of America until Aug. ] , 1498, during his
third voyage, on which day, he, for the first time, obtained a view
of the main contment, near the mouth of the Oronoco. Yet he was
ignorant at the time, that the land in* question was an)' thing
more than an island.

During this voyage. Columbus was destined to experience
severe afflictions. After his departure from Spain, having been
appointed governor of the New World, his enemies, by false
representations, persuaded the king to appoint another in his
place. At the same time, the king was induced to give orders
that Columbus should be seized and sent to Spain. This order

DISCOVERIES. 15

was executed with rigid severity ; and the heroic Columbus re
turned to Spain in irons !

Onhis arrival, he was set at liberty by the king; but he ffevei
recovered his authority. Soon after his return from a fuurth
voyage, finding Isabella, his patroness, dead, and himself neglected,
he sunk beneath his misfortunes and infirmities, and expired on
the 20th of May, 150G. His last words were, " Into thy hands,
O Lord. I commend my spirit."

The body of Columbus was deposited in the convent of St.
Francisco, but was afterwards removed to a monastery at Seville,
where, for a time, it rested with the remains of his son Diego.
The bodies of both, however, were afterwards removed to Hispa-
niola. and here again disinterred, and conveyed to Havana, in the
island of Cuba, where, in peace, they now repose.

We sball conclude this notice of the great pioneer to this west-
ern world, in the eloquent language of the author to whom we
have been indebted for the principal incidents in the life of this
illustrious man.* " He (Columbus) died in ignorance of the real
grandeur of his discovery. Until his last breath, he entertained the
idea that he had merely opened a new way to the old resorts of
opulent commerce, and had discovered some of the wild regions of
the East. He supposed Hispaniola to be the ancient Ophir, which
had been visited by the ships of Solomon, and that Cuba and
Terra Firma were but remote parts of Asia. What visions of
glory would have broken upon his mind, could he have known
that lie had indeed discovered anew continent, equal to the whole
of the old world in magnitude, and separated by two vast oceans
from all the earth hitherto Known by civilized man !"

3. The discovery of Columbus naturally excited the
attention of the civilized nations of Europe, and they
became eager to share with Spain the honors and ad
vantages of further discoveries in the new world. A*
early as May, 1497, John and Sebastian Cabot, father
and son, sailed, under the patronage of Henry VII.,
king of England, on a voyage of discovery ; and, in
June following, fell in with the island of Newfoundland.
which they called Prima Vista. Soon after, they dis-
covered the smaller island of St. John's and the conti-
nent itself . On their return, they pursued a southerly
course to Virginia, and, according to others, to the cape
of Florida. They returned without attempting a set-
tlement, but took possession of the country in behalf
of the crown of England.

* JrvinS's Columbus

16 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

John Cabot appears to have been a native of Venice, but to
have settled in England, with his family, some time previous to
the above voyage. The commission granted to him by Henry,
which is the oldest American state paper of England, bore date
March 5th, 1496, although he did not sail until the year follow-
ing. This squadron was allowed to consist of six ships, of the
burden of two hundred tons ; but, for reasons not well under-
stood, they sailed with but two caravals, and three hundred men.
These were freighted by the merchants of London and Bristol.
They have the honor of making the first discovery of the conti-
nent, Columbus not falling in with it until 1498, during his third
voyage, as has already been related. The extent of this voyage
of the Cabots appears not to have been settled by historians.
Some writers suppose that they reached the latitude of 67°, while
others make the limits of their voyage the 45th and 38th degrees
of north latitude.

4. The French attempted no discoveries on the
American coast, until 1524. This year, John Verra-
zano, a native of Florence, sailed under the patronage
of Francis I of France, and, in the course of his voyage,
explored the coast from 30° to 50° of north latitude,
and examined Florida with considerable accuracy.

Historians differ in their account of this voyage of Verrazano.
By some, he is supposed to have first made the American coast
where the town of Savannah now stands. Others place his ap-
proach in latitude 37°, whence it is supposed that he proceeded
south to latitude 34°, in the neighborhood of Wilmington, North
Carolina, where he landed. Thence sailing southerly, as far as
the 30th degree, he resumed his northern course, touching, it is
supposed, at Sandy Hook, and afterwards at some of the islands
off Rhode Island,, whence he proceeded northerly to the 50th
degree of north latitude, to Newfoundland. The following year,
this enterprising navigator made another voyage to the American
coast, during which, by some unknown disaster, he was lost, with
all his crew.

5. In 1534, James Cartier, under a commission from
the king of France, made a voyage to America, in which
he visited the island of Newfoundland, and discovered
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The following year, during
a second voyage, he proceeded up the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, to the Isle of Orleans, and thence as far as Mon-
treal. At the former place he spent the winter, and iu
the spring returned to France.

DISCOVERIES. 17

On his first voyage, Cartier sailed with two small ships, aim
one hundred and twenty-two men. On the 10th of May, lit)
made the island of Newfoundland ; but, being prevented by the
ice from proceeding farther, he sailed southwardly. As soon,
however, as the season would permit, he returned to the north,
and visited several harbors in Newfoundland and Labrador. Pro-
ceeding northerly, with the hope of passing to China, he dis-
covered and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but soon after
was obliged, on account of unpropitious weather, to return to
France. During his second voyage, he reached, as we have
stated above, the island on which Montreal stands. Here he
found a large Indian settlement, by the inhabitants of which he
was well treated. This Indian settlement was called Hochelaga.
Cartier gave it the name of Mount Royal, from a mountain in
the neighborhood. From this circumstance, the island and city
of Montreal derive their name. During the winter, which he
passed at the island of Orleans, many of his men died of the
scurvy, with wThich they had been afflicted for some time.

It may here be added, that, in 1540, Cartier again visited Ameri-
ca, with the intention of forming a settlement. He built a fort at
some distance from the Isle of Orleans ; but, in the following
spring, not having received anticipated supplies, he set sail to return
to France with his colony. At Newfoundland, he met with three
ships and two hundred persons, on their way to the new settle-
ment. Cartier proceeded on his voyage to France. The other
ships continued their course to the fort which Cartier had left.
After passing a distressing winter, the whole party, abandoning
the settlement, in the spring returned to France.

6. In the spring of 1541, six years from the discovery
of the river St. Lawrence, another equally important
river, the Mississippi, was discovered. This honor be-
longs to Ferdinand de Soto, a Spaniard, who, having
projected the conquest of Florida from the natives, ar-
rived from Cuba, 1539, with a considerable force. He
traversed the country to a great distance, and in the
spring of 1541, first discovered the Mississippi, five or
six hundred miles from its mouth. #

The object of Soto, in traversing so wide an extent of country,
appears to have been to search for gold. The summer and win-
ter of 1539 he spent in Florida. In 1540, he began his tour
north-east, and having crossed the Altamaha, Savannah, and
Ogechee rivers, he turned westerly, and, crossing the Alleghanies,
proceeded southwardly as far as Mobile and Pensacola. The
winter of this year he spent with the Chickasaws. The follow -
ing spring, he made the important discovery above mentioned.

18 period l— 1492 to 1607.

The following year, he died on the banks of the Red river, soon
after which, the remnant of his followers, who, at first, amounted
to some hundreds, constructed several small boats, and, having
sailed down the Mississippi, returned to Cuba.

7. In 15S4, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a commission
from Queen Elizabeth of England, despatched two small
vessels, commanded by Amidas and Barlow, to the
American coast. On their arrival, they entered Pamli-
co sound, now in North Carolina, and thence proceeded
to Roanoake, an island near the mouth of Albemarle
sound. Here they spent several weeks in trafficking
with the natives, but effected no settlement. On their
return to England, they gave so splendid a description
of the beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth
bestowed upon it the name of Virginia, as a memorial
that the happy discovery had been made under a virgin
queen.

Previously to the above voyage, under the auspices of Sir
Walter Baleigh, two unfortunate attempts had been made by his
brother-in-law, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, to effect a settlement in
the new world. Both, however, proved ineffectual ; and during
the last, while Sir Humphrey was returning to England, his ves-
sel was shipwrecked, and all on board perished. Not discour-
aged by the unfortunate issue of the enterprises of Gilbert,
Raleigh fitted out an expedition, as we have above stated, in
1584. The report brought back by Amidas and Barlow induced
Sir Walter, in 1585, to attempt a settlement at the island of
Roanoake. This colony was, in a short time, reduced to great
distress, and, in 1586, returned with Sir Francis Drake to Eng-
land. The following year, however, another colony was sent
out, consisting of one hundred and fifty adventurers. These,
most unfortunately, were neglected, in respect to supplies; and
when, at length, a vessel was despatched to inquire into their
state, not a vestige of them remained.

8. In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold, in a voyage from
Falmouth to the northern part of Virginia, discovered
the promontory in Massachusetts bay, which, since hia
time, has been known by the name of Cape Cod, from
the circumstance of his taking a great number of cod
fish at that place.

Gosnold was the first Englishman, who, abandoning the circu
Rous route by the Canaries and West Indies, came in a direct

DISCOVERIES. 19

course to this part of the American continent. He was but
seven weeks in making the passage. After the discovery of
Cape Cod, coasting south-west, he discovered two islands, one of
which he named Martha's Vineyard, and the other Elizabeth
island. On the western part of this latter island it was conclud-
ed to settle, and a fort and storehouse were accordingly erected ;
but, before Gosnold left the place, discontents arising among those
who were to form the colony, it was thought expedient to aban-
don the settlement and to return to England. The homeward
voyage occupied but five weeks.

NOTES.

9. As we are now about to enter upon a period which
will exhibit our ancestors as inhabitants of this new
world, it will be interesting *to know what was its as-
pect when they first landed upon its shores.

State of the Country. — On the arrival of the first settlers,
North America was almost one unbroken wilderness. From the
recesses of these forests were heard the panther, the catamount,
the bear, the wild-cat, the wolf, and other beasts of prey. From
the thickets rushed the buffalo, the elk, the moose, and the carra-
bo ; and. scattered on the mountains and plains, were seen the
stag and fallow deer. Numerous flocks of the feathered tribe
enlivened the air, and multitudes of fish filled the rivers, or glid-
ed along the shores. The spontaneous productions of the soil,
also, were found to be various and abundant. In all parts of the
land grew grapes, which historians have likened to the ancient
grapes of Eshcol. In the south were found mulberries, plums,
melons, cucumbers, tobacco, corn, peas, beans, potatoes, squashes,
pumpions, &c. Acorns, walnuts, chestnuts, wild cherries, cur-
rants, strawberries, whortleberries, in the season of them, grew
wild in every quarter of the country.

10. Aborigines. — The country was inhabited by nu-
merous tribes or clans of Indians. Of their number, at
the period the English settled among them, no certain
estimate has been transmitted to us. They did riot
probably much exceed 150,000 within the compass of
the thirteen original states.*

In their physical character, the different Indian tribes,
within the boundaries of the United States, were nearly
the same. Their persons were tall, straight, and well

* This is the estimate of Dr. Trumbull

20 period l— 1492 to .1607.

proportioned. Their skins were red, or of a copper-
brown ; their eyes black, their hair long, black, and
coarse. In constitution, they were firm and vigorous,
capable of sustaining great fatigue and hardship.

As to their general character, they were quick of ap-
prehension, and not wanting in genius. At times, they
were friendly, and even courteous. In council, they
were distinguished for gravity and eloquence ; in war,
for bravery and address. When provoked to anger,
they were sullen and retired ; and when determined
upon revenge, no danger would deter them ; neither ab-
sence nor time could cool them. If captured by an
enemy, they never asked life ; nor would they betray emo-
tions of fear, even in view of the tomahawk, or of the
kindling fagot.

They had no books or written literature, except rude hieroglyph-
ics ; and education among them was confined to the arts of war,
hunting, fishing, and the few manufactures which existed among
them, most of which every male was more or less instructed in.
Their language was rude, bat sonorous, metaphorical, and ener-
getic. It was well suited to the purposes of public speaking ;
and, when accompanied by the impassioned gestures, and uttered
with the deep guttural tones of the savage, it is said to have had
a singularly wild and impressive effect. They had some few war-
songs, which were little more than an unmeaning chorus; but, it
is believed, they had no other compositions which were preserved.

Their arts and manufactures were confined to the construction
of wigwams, bows and arrows, wampum, ornaments, stone hatch-
ets, mortars for pounding corn; to the dressing of skins, weaving
of coarse mats from the bark of trees, or a coarse sort of hemp,
&c.

Their agriculture was small in extent, and the articles they
cultivated were few in number. Corn, beans, peas, potatoes,
melons, and a few others of a similar kind, were all.

Their skill in medicine was confined to a few simple prescrip-
tions and operations. Both the cold and warm bath were often
applied, and a considerable number of plants were used with suc-
cess. For some diseases they knew no remedy, in which case
they resorted to their powow, or priest, who undertook the re-
moval of the disease by means of sorcery.

It may be remarked, however, that the diseases to which the
Indians were liable, were few, compared with those which pre
vail in civilized society.

DISCO VKIUi:^.

The employments of the men were principally bursting, fishing,
and tear. The women dressed the food, took charge of the do-
mestic concerns, tilled their narrow and scanty fields, and per-
formed almost all the drudgery connected with their household
affairs.

The amusements of the men were principally leaping, shooting
at marks, dancing, gaming, and hunting, in all of which they
made the most violent exertions. Their dances were usually per-
formed round a large fire. In their war-dances, they sung or re-
cited the feats which they or their ancestors had achieved ;
represented the manner in which they were performed, and
wrought themselves up to an inexpressible degree of martial en-
thusiasm. The females occasionally joined in some of these
sports, but had none peculiar to themselves.

Their dress was various. In summer, they wore little besides a
covering about the waist; but in winter, they clothed themselves
in the skins of wild beasts. They were exceedingly fond of or-
naments. On days of show and festivity, their sachems wore
mantles of deer-skin, embroidered with white beads, or copper ; or
they were painted with various devices. Hideousness was the
object aimed at in painting themselves. A chain of fish-bones
about the neck, or the skin of a wild-cat, was the sign of royalty.

For habitations, the Indians had weekwams, or wigwams, as

pronounced by the English. These originally consisted of a
strong pole, erected in the centre, around which, at the distance

22 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

of ten or twelve feet, other poles were driven obliquely into the
ground, and fastened to the centre pole at the top. Their cover
ings were of mats, or barks of trees, well adjusted so as to render
them dry and comfortable.

Their domestic utensils extended not beyond a hatchet of stone .
a few shells and sharp stones, which they used for knives ; stone
mortars for pounding corn, rzid some mats and skins upon which
they slept. They sat, and ate, and lodged, on the ground. With
shells and stones they scalped their enemies, dressed their game,
cut their hair, &c. They made nets of thread, twisted from the
bark of Indian hemp, or of the sinews of the moose and deer.
For fish-hooks, they used bones which were bent.

Their food was of the coarsest and simplest kind — the flesh,
and even the entrails, of all kinds of wild beasts and birds ;
and, in their proper season, green corn, beans, peas, &c. &c,
which they cultivated, and other fruits, which the country spon-
taneously produced. Flesh and fish they roasted on a stick, or
broiled on the fire. In some instances, they boiled their meat and
corn by putting hot stones in water. Corn they parched, es-
pecially in the winter ; and upon this they lived in the absence
of other food.

The money of the Indians, called icamjmm, consisted of small
beads wrought from shells, and strung on belts, and in chains.
The wampum of the New England Indians was black, blue, and
white. That of the Six Nations was of a purple color. Six of
the white beads, and three of black, or blue, became of the value
of a penny. A belt of wampum was given as a token of friend-
ship, or as a seal or confirmation of a treaty.

There was little among them that could be called society. Except
when roused by some strong excitement, the men were generally
indolent, taciturn, and unsocial. The women were too degraded
and oppressed to think of much besides their toils. Removing,
too, as the seasons changed, or as the game grew scarce, or as
danger from a stronger tribe threatened, there was little opportu-
nity for forming those local attachments, and those social ties,
which spring from a long residence in a particular spot. Their lan-
guage also, though energetic, was too barren to serve the purposes
of familiar conversation. In order to be understood and felt, it
required the aid of strong and animated gesticulation, which could
take place only when great occasions excited them. .It seems,
therefore, that they drew no considerable part of their enjoyments
from intercourse with one another. Female beauty had little
power over the men ; and all other pleasures gave way to the
strong impulses of public festivity, or burning captives, or seeking
murderous revenge, or the chase, of war, or glory.

War was the favorite employment of the savages of North
America. It roused them from the lethargy into which they fell
when they ceased from the chase, and furnished them an oppor-

DISCOVERIES. 23

tumty to distinguish themselves — to achieve deeds of glory, and
taste the sweets of revenge. Their weapons were bows and ar-
rows headed with flint or other hard stones, which they dis-
charged with great precision and force. The southern Indiana
used targets made of bark ; the Mohawks clothed themselves
with skins, as a defence against the arrows of their enemies.
When they fought in the open field, they rushed to the attack
with incredible fury ; and, at the same time-, uttered their appal-
Xng war-whoop. Those whom they had taken captive they often
tortured with every variety of cruelty, and to their dying ago-
nies added every species of insult. If peace was concluded on,
the chiefs of the hostile tribes ratified the treaty by smoking, in
succession, the same pipe, called the calumet, or pipe of peace.

The government of the Indians, in general, was an absolute mon-
archy, though it differed in different tribes. The will of the sachem
was law. In matters of moment, he consulted his counsellors ; but
his decisions were final. War and peace, among some tribes, seem
to have been determined on in a council formed of old men, distin-
guished by their exploits. When in council, they spoke at pleas-
ure, and always listened to the speaker with profound and re-
spectful silence. " When propositions for war or peace were made,
or treaties proposed to them by the colonial governors, they met
the ambassadors in council, and, at the end of eacn paragraph or
proposition, the principal sachem delivered a short stick to one
of his council, intimating that it was his peculiar duty to remem-
ber that paragraph. This was repeated, till every proposal was
finished ; they then retired to deliberate among themselves. Af-
ter their deliberations were ended, the sachem, or some counsel-
lors to whom he had delegated this office, replied to every para-
graph in its turn, with an exactness sear<$ely exceeded in the
written correspondence of civilized powers. Each man actually
remembered what was committed to him, and, with his assistance,
the person who replied remembered the whole."

T'he religious notions of the natives consisted of traditions,
mingic'd with many superstitions. Like the ancient Greeks, Ro-
mans, Persians, Hindoos, &c. they believed in the existence of
two gods, the one good, who was the superior,. and whom they
styled the Great or Good Spirit ; the other evil. They worship-
ped both ; and of both formed images of stone, to which they
paid religious homage. Besides these, they worshipped various
other deities — fire, water , thunder — any thing which they conceived
to be superior to themselves, and capable of doing them injury
The manner of worship was to sing and dance round large fires
Besides dancing, they offered prayers, and sometimes sweet-
scented powder. Jn Virginia, the Indians offered blood, deer's
suet, and tobacco. Of the creation and the deluge, they had dis-
tinct traditions.

Marriage among them was generally a temporary contract

24 period i.— 1492 to 1607.

The men chose their wives agreeably to fancy, and put them away
at pleasure. Marriage was celebrated, however, with some cere-
mony, and, in many instances, was observed with fidelity; not
unfrequently it was as lasting as life. Polygamy was common
among them.

Their treatment of females was cruel and oppressive. They
were considered by the men as slaves, and treated as such.
Those forms of decorum between the sexes, which lay the foun-
dation for the respectful and gallant courtesy, with which women
are treated in civilized society, were unknown among them. Of
course, females were not only required to perform severe labor, bul
often felt the full weight of the passions and caprices of the men.

The rites of burial , among the Indians, varied but little through
out the continent. They generally dug holes in the ground, with
sharpened stakes. In the bottom of the grave were laid sticks,
upon which the corpse, wrapped in skins and mats, was deposited.
The arms, utensils, paints, and ornaments of the deceased, were
buried with him. and a mound of earth raised over his grave.
Among some tribes in New England, and among the Five Nations,
the dead were buried in a sitting posture, with their laces towards
the east. During the burial, they uttered the most lamentable
cries, and continued their mourning for several days.

The origin of the Indians inhabiting the country, on the arrival
of the English colonists, is involved in much obscurity ; and sev-
eral different answers have been given by learned men to the in-
quiry, Whence did they come to America? The opinion best sup-
ported is, that they originated in Asia, and that at some former
period, not now to be ascertained, they emigrated from that coun
try to America, over which, in succeeding years, their descend-
ants spread. This opinion is rendered the more probable by the
fact, that the figure, complexion, dress, manners, customs, &c.
&c, of the nations of both continents, are strikingly similar.
That they might have emigrated from the eastern continent is
evident, since, in latitude (i6°, the two continents are not more
than forty miles distant from each other ; and between them are
two islands less than twenty miles distant from either shore.

REFLECTIONS.

11. We shall find it pleasant and profitable occasionally to pause
in our history, and consider what instruction may be drawn from
the portion of it that has been perused.

In the story of Columbus, we are introduced to a man of ge-
nius, energy, and enterprise. We see him forming a new, and, in
that age, a mighty project ; and, having matured his plan, we
see him set himself vigorously about its execution. For a time
he is either treated as a visionary or baffled by opposition. But,
neither discouraged nor dejected, he steadily pursues his purpose,

DISCOVERIES. "25

surmounts every obstacle, and at length spreads his sails upon
the unknown waters of the Atlantic. A kind Providence au-
spiciously guides his way, and crowns his enterprise with the un-
expected discovery of a new world.

While we admire the lofty qualities of Columbus, and look
with wonder at the consequences which have resulted from his
discovery, let us emulate his decision, energy, and perseverance.
Many are the occasions, in the present world, on which it will be
important to summon these to our aid ; and, by their means,
many useful objects may be accomplished, which, without them,
would be unattained.

But, while we thus press forward in the career of usefulness —
while we aim to accomplish for our fellow men all the amount of

food in our power, let us moderate our expectations of reward
ere, by the consideration that Columbus died the victim of in-
gratitude and disappointment.

Another consideration, of still deeper interest, is suggested by
the story of Columbus. We , who live to mark the wonderful events
which have flowed from his discovery, within the short space of
three centuries, cannot but advert with awe to Him who attaches
to the actions of a single individual a train of consequences so
stupendous and unexpected. How lightly soever, then, we may
think of our conduct, let us remember, that the invisible hand
of Providence may be connecting with our smallest actions the
most momentous results to ourselves and others.

With respect to Americus Vespucius, it may be observed, that,
although he deprived Columbus of the merited honor of giving
his name to the new world, and gained this distinction for him-
self, still his name will ever remain stigmatized, as having ap-
propriated that to himself which fairly belonged to another.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD II.

DISTINGUISHED FOR SETTLEMENTS

Extending from the first permanent English Settlement
at Jamestoivn, Virginia, 1607, to the Accession of
William and Mary to the Throne of England, 1689.

Sec. 1. Prior to the year 1607, a period of 115 years
from the discovery of San Salvador by Columbus, seve-
ral attempts, some of which we have noticed, were made
to effect settlements in various parts of North America ;
but none had proved successful.

A sufficient reason may be assigned for the failure of the seve-
ral attempts to effect permanent settlements in North America,
viz. that they were undertaken upon individual responsibility, with
bad calculations, and intrusted, in most instances, to men of mer-
cenary views. And, as to the sovereigns of Europe, they were
too much occupied with affairs at home, to engage in speculations
abroad. Besides, no prince or statesman in Europe appears to
have foreseen the advantages of planting colonies in this northern
continent. Had it contained mines of gold and silver, like South
America, they would have contended with one another for the
prize. But it seems not to have been conceived how numerous,
hardy colonies, could give such strength, opulence and grandeur
to empires, as could never be derived from the gold and rich pro-
ductions of the southern regions. One advantage, however, re-
sulted to the nations of Europe, and which, for many years, they
enjoyed in common, viz. the-fishery on the banks of Newfound-
land'. For a time, it was prosecuted to an inconsiderable extent ;
but, at length, it ripened into a system, and became a source of
national emolument.

SETTLEMENTS. 41

2. The year 1607 marks the era when the first per-
manent settlement was effected by Europeans in North
America. In the month of May of this year, a colony
from England, consisting of one hundred and five per-
sons, arrived in Virginia; and, on a beautiful peninsula
in James river, began a settlement, which they called
Jamestown.

3. This name was given to the above settlement in
honor of James I. of England, who, the year previously,
had granted to two companies, called the London and
Plymouth companies, the lands in Narth America em-
braced between the 34th and 45th degrees of north lati-
tude— the southern part, called South Virginia, to the
London, and the northern, called North Virginia, to the
Plymouth company.

The London company consisted of Sir Thomas Gates, Sir
George Somers, Richard Hackluyt, Edward Maria Wingfield,
&c. These were authorized to make a settlement at any place
between the 34th and 41st degrees of latitude ; and in them was

28 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

vested the right of property in the land extending fifty miles each
way from their place of habitation, reaching one hundred miles
into the country. The Plymouth company consisted of Thomas
Hanham, Raleigh Gilbert, William Parker. George Popham, and
others, principally inhabitants of Bristol, Plymouth, and the east-
ern parts of England. To this company was granted the lands
between the 38th and 45th degrees of latitude. They were vest-
ed with the right of property in lands to the same extent as in the
southern colony : neither company, however, were to form set-
tlements within one hundred miles of the other.

4. Under the auspices of the London company, the
first settlement in Virginia was commenced. The expe-
dition was commanded by Capt. Christopher Newport ;
but the government of the colony was framed in Eng-
land, before it sailed. It was to consist of a council of
seven persons, with a president, to be elected by the
council from their number. Who composed it was un-
known at the time the expedition sailed, their names
being carefully concealed in a box, which was to be
opened after their arrival.

The original intention of the colony was to form a settlement
at Roanoake ; but, being driven by a violent storm north of that
place, they discovered the entrance of Chesapeake bay, the
capes of which they named Charles and Henry. Entering this,
they at length reached a convenient spot upon which to com-
mence a settlement.

The code of laws, hitherto cautiously concealed, was now pro-
mulgated ; and, at the same time, the council appointed in Eng-
land was made known. It consisted of Bartholomew Gosnold,
John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport. John
Ratcliffe, John Martin, and George Kendall. Mr. Wingfield was
chosen president.

Among the most enterprising and useful members of this col-
ony, and one of its magistrates, was Capt. John Smith. In his
youth, he had been apprenticed to a merchant ; but, being of a
roving turn, he quitted his master; and, although at this time
but thirteen years of age, he travelled in France, whence he pro-
ceeded to the Netherlands, Egypt, and Germany, and, at length,
entered the service of the emperor of Austria, who was engaged
in a war with the Turks.

The regiment in which he served was engaged in several
hazardous enterprises, in which Smith exhibited a bravery ad-
mired by all the army ; and when Meldrick left the imperial
service for that of his native prince, Smith followed

SETTLEMENTS. 29

At the siege of Regal, he was destined to new adventures.
The Ottomans, deriding the slow advance of the Transylvania
array, the Lord Turbisha despatched a messenger with a chal-
lenge, that, for the diversion of the ladies of the place, he would
fight any captain of the Christian troops.

The honor of accepting this challenge was determined by lot,
and fell on Smith. At the time appointed, the two champions
appeared in the field on horseback, and, in the presence of the
armies, and of the ladies of the insulting Ottoman, rushed im-
petuously to the attack. A short, but desperate conflict ensued,
at the end of which Smith was seen bearing the head of the
lifeless Turbisha in triumph to his general.

The fall of the chief filled his friend Crualgo with indigna-
tion, and roused him to avenge his death. Smith accordingly
soon after received a challenge from him, which he did not hes-
itate to accept ; and the two exasperated combatants, upon their
chargers, fell with desperate fury upon each other. Victory again
followed the falchion of Smith, who sent the Turk headlong to
the ground.

It was now the turn of Smith to make the advance. He de-
spatched a message, therefore, to the Turkish ladies, that if they
were desirous of more diversion of a similar kind, they should
be welcome to his head, in case their third champion could take it

Bonamalgro tendered his services, and haughtily accepted the
Christian's challenge. When the day arrived, the spectators as-
sembled, and the combatants entered the field. It was an hour
of deep anxiety to all : as the horsemen approached, a deathlike
silence pervaded the multitude. A blow from the sabre of the
Turk brought Smith to the ground ; and, for a moment, it seemed
as if the deed of death was done. Smith, however, was only
stunned. He rose like a lion when he shakes the dew from his
mane for the fight, and, vaulting into his saddle, made his fal-
chion " shed fast atonement for its first delay." It is hardly
necessary to add, that the head of Bonamalgro was added to the
number.

In a general battle, in which he was subsequently engaged,
he was wounded and taken prisoner. On Ms recovery, he was
sold as a slave, and was taken to Constantinople. He was re-
quired to wait upon the lady of his master, who, captivated by
his fine appearance, sent him, in the absence of her husband, to
the care of her brother, who resided near the sea of Asoph.

But he, being of a cruel disposition, treated Smith with so
much inhumanity, that, one day, in a fit of desperation, he killed
his new master, and fled into Russia. From this country, he trav
elled through Germany, France, and Spain; and, at length, re
turned once more to England.

At this time, the settlement of America was occupying tha
attention of many distinguished men in England. The life of
3 *

30 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

Smith, united to his fondness for enterprises of danger and diffi
culty, had prepared him to embark with zeal in a project so
novel and sublime as that of exploring the wilds of a newly-dis
covered continent.

He was soon attached to the expedition about to sail under
Newport, and was appointed one of the magistrates of the colo-
ny sent over at that time. Before the arrival of the colony, hia
colleagues in office, becoming jealous of his influence, arrested
him on the absurd charge, that he designed to murder the coun-
cil, usurp the government, and make himself king of Virginia.
He was, therefore, rigorously confined during the remainder of
the voyage.

On their arrival in the country, he was liberated, but could
not obtain a trial, although, in the tone of conscious integrity, he
repeatedly demanded it. The infant colony was soon involved
in perplexity and danger. Notwithstanding Smith had been
calumniated, and his honor deeply wounded, his was not the
spirit to remain idlej when his services were needed. Nobly
disdaining revenge, he offered his assistance, and, by his talents,
experience, and indefatigable zeal, furnished important aid to
the infant colony.

Continuing to assert his innocence, and to demand a trial, the
time at length arrived, when his enemies could postpone it no
longer. After a fair hearing of- the case, he was honorably ac-
quitted of the charges alleged against him, and soon after took his
seat in the council.

The affairs of the colony becoming more settled, the active
spirit of Smith prompted him to explore the neighboring country.
In an attempt to ascertain the source of Chickahoming river, he
ascended, in a barge, as far as the stream was uninterrupted.
Designing to proceed still farther, he left the barge in the keeping
of the crew, with strict injunctions on no account to leave her/
and, with two Englishmen and two Indians, left the party. But
no sooner was he out of view, than the crew, impatient of re-
straint, repaired on board the barge, and, proceeding some dis-
tance down the stream, landed at a place where a body of In-
dians lay in ambush, by whom they were seized.

By means of the crew, the route of Smith was ascertained,
and a party of Indians were immediately despatched to take him.
On coming up with him, they fired, killed the Englishmen, and
wounded himself. With great presence of mind, he now tied his
Indian guide to his left arm, as a shield from the enemies' ar-
rows, while, with his musket, he despatched three of the most
forward of the assailants. -

In this manner, he continued to retreat towards his canoe,
while the Indians, struck with admiration of his bravery, fol-
lowed with respectful caution. Unfortunately, coming to a
sunken spot filled with mire, while engrossed with eyeing his

SETTLEMENTS.

pursuers, he sunk so deep as to be unable to extricate himself,
and was forced to surrender.

Fruitful in expedients, to avert immediate death, he presented
an ivory compass to the chief, whose attention was arrested by
the vibrations of the needle. Taking advantage of the impres-
sion which he had thus made, partly by signs and partly by lan-
guage, he excited their wonder still more, by telling them of ;ta
singular powers.

Their wonder, however, seemed soon to abate, and their at-
tention returned to their prisoner. He was now bound, and tied
to a tree, and the savages were preparing to direct their arrows
at his breast. At this instant, the chief holding up the compass,
they laid down their arms, and led him in triumph to Powhatan,
their king.

Powhatan and his council doomed him to death, as a man
whose courage and genius were peculiarly dangerous to the

Indians. Preparations were accordingly made ; and when the
time arrived, Smith was led out to execution. His head was laid
upon a stone, and a club presented to Powhatan, who himself
claimed the honor of becoming the executioner. The savages
in silence were circling round, and the giant arm of Powhatan
had already raised the club to strike the fatal blow, when, to his
astonishment, the young and beautiful Pocahontas, his daughter,
with a shriek of terror, rushed from the throng, and threw her*

82 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

self upon the body of Smith. At the same time, she cast an
imploring look towards her furious, but astonished father, and, in
all the eloquence of mute, but impassioned sorrow, besought
his life.

The remainder of the scene was honorable to Powhatan.
The club of the chief was still uplifted ; but a father's pity had
touched his heart, and the eye that had at first kindled with wrath
was now fast losing its fierceness. He looked round as if to col-
lect his fortitude, or perhaps to find an excuse for his weakness, in
the pity of the attendants. A similar sympathy had melted the
savage throng, and seemed to join in the petition which the
weeping Pocahontas felt, but durst not utter, " My father, let
the prisoner live." Powhatan raised his daughter, and the cap-
tive, scarcely yet assured of safety, from the earth.

Shortly after, Powhatan dismissed Capt. Smith, with assur-
ances of friendship ; and the next morning, accompanied with
a guard of twelve men, he arrived safely at Jamestown, after a
captivity of seven weeks.*

In 1609, circumstances having arisen to interrupt the friendly
dispositions of Powhatan towards the colony, he plotted their
entire destruction. His design was to attack them unapprized,
and to cut them off at a blow.

In a dark and stormy night, the heroic Pocahontas hastened alone
to Jamestown, and disclosed the inhuman plot of her father.
The colony were thus put on their guard, and their ruin averted.

It may be interesting to add, concerning Pocahontas, that some
time after this, she was married to an English gentleman of the
name of Rolfe, with whom she visited England. She embraced
the Christian religion, and was baptized by the name of Rebec-
ca. She left one son, who had several daughters, the descend-
ants of whom inherited her lands in Virginia, and are among the
most respectable families in that state.

5. The colony, thus commenced, soon experienced a
variety of calamities, incidental, perhaps, to infant settle-
ments, Out not the less painful and discouraging. Ineffi-
ciency and a want of harmony marked the proceedings
of the council. Provisions were scarce, and of a poor
quality. The neighboring tribes of Indians became
jealous and hostile ; and, more than all, sickness spread
among them, and carried a large proportion of their
number to an early grave.

By the middle of July, they were so distressed with the bad-
ness and scarcity of provisions, with sickness, labor, and contin-

* Burk'a Virginia.

SETTLEMENTS. 33

nal guarding against the enemy, that scarcely ten of the whole
company could walk, or even stand alone. By the end of the
month, fifty of their number were no more. Among the dead,
was that enterprising gentleman, Captain Gosnold, the projector
of the whole scheme of the plantation.

To increase their misfortunes, the president embezzled the
public stores, and attempted to run away with the company's
bark, and to return to England. It was therefore found neces-
sary, for the common safety, to displace him. Mr. RatclifFe was
elected to the presidency. But it very soon appeared that his
abilities were by no means equal to the exigencies of the compa-
ny ; and the whole weight of government fell, therefore, on Capt.
John Smith.*

The condition of the colony was, at length, somewhat im-
proved, and their courage renewed, by the arrival of Capt. New-
port, (who had been despatched to England,) with a supply of
provisions, and an additional number of men. This number was
not long after augmented, and a further supply of necessaries re-
ceived, by the arrival of Capt. Nelson, who had sailed in company
with Newport, but who had been separated from him during a
storm, and for .some time was supposed to be lost. With these
accessions, the colonists now amounted to two hundred men. This
number was still further increased, before the end of 1608, by the
arrival of seventy colonists, among whom were many persons of
distinction. yS^

6. Early in the year 1609, the London company, not
having realized th/ir anticipated profit from their new
establishment in/America, obtained from the king a new
charter, with more ample privileges. Under this charter,
Thomas West/ otherwise called Lord De la War, was
appointed governor for life.

The company, under their new act of incorporation, was styled,
" The treasurer and company of adventurers and planters for the
first colony in Virginia." They were now granted in absolute
property, what had formerly been conveyed only in trust — a
territory extending from Point Comfort two hundred miles north
and south, along the coast, and throughout the land from sea
to sea.

7. Lord De la War, being appointed governor of the
colony, but not being able to leave England, immediately
despatched to America nine ships and five hundred men,
under command of Sir Thomas Gates, his lieutenant, and

* Trumbull

34 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

Sir George Summers, his admiral. Eight of these ships
arrived in safety at Jamestown, in the month of August ;
but that on board of which was Sir Thomas and other
officers, being wrecked on the Bermudas, did not arrive
till May of the following year.

The ship, thus wrecked, contained one hundred and fifty per-
sons, the whole of whom were, for a time, in extreme danger of
being lost. For three days, they were obliged to labor incessant-
ly at the pump. The leak, however, still increasing, it was
attempted to run her on shore ; but she stranded, at the distance
of three quarters of a mile from land. By the help of .the boats,
however, the crew and passengers were all saved ; and, having
built two small vessels, again set sail for Virginia, where they
arrived at the time stated above.

8. At the time Sir Thomas and the other officers ar-
rived, the colony had become reduced to circumstances
of great depression. Capt. Smith, in consequence of a
severe accidental wound, had some time before returned
to England. His departure was followed by disastrous
consequences. Subordination and industry ceased ; the
Indians became hostile, and refused the usual supplies
of provisions. Famine ensued; and to such extremities
had they sunk, that the skins of the horses were de-
voured, as were also the bodies of Indians whom they
had killed, and even the remains of deceased friends.
Of five hundred persons, sixty only remained. At this
juncture, the shipwrecked from Bermuda arrived. An
immediate return to England was resolved upon ; and,
with that intent, they embarked. But, just as they were
leaving the mouth of the river, Lord De la War fortu-
nately appeared, with supplies of men and provisions,
and they were persuaded to return. By means of his
judicious management, the condition of the colony soon
wore a better aspect, and for several years continued to
prosper.

It was unfortunate, however, for the colony, that ill health
obliged Lord De la War, in March. 1611, to leave the adminis-
tration. He was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale, who arrived in
May. Hitherto, no right of property in land had been establish-
ed, but the produce of labor was deposited in public stores, and

SETTLEMENTS. 35

shared in common. To remedy the indolence and indifference
growing out of such a system, Sir Thomas assigned to each in-
habitant a lot of three acres as his own, and a certain portion
of time to cultivate it. The advantages of this measure were
soon so apparent, that another assignment of fifty acres waa
made, and not long after the plan of working in a common field
was abandoned

9. Iii 1613, several Dutch merchants erected a fort
on Hudson's river, where Albany now stands, and a few
trading houses on the island of New York, at that time
called by the Indians Manhattan.

Hudson's river derives its name from Henry Hudson, an Eng-
lishman by birth, but who, at the time of this discovery, was in
the service of the Dutch East India Company. Hudson left the
Texel on the 20th of March, 1609, with the design of penetrat-
ing to the East Indies by sailing a .north-westward course.
Failing in this, he proceeded along the shores of Newfoundland,
and thence southward as far as Chesapeake and Delaware bays.
Thence returning northward, he discovered and sailed up the
river which now bears his name.

By virtue of this discovery, the Dutch laid claim to the coun-
try, and the following year several Dutch merchants sent ships
to the river to open a trade with the natives, The claim thus
set up by the Dutch, was denied by the court of England, not
on the ground that Hudson was not the first to discover and en-
ter the river, but that, being an English subject, the right to the
country belonged to them.

The Dutch, having planted themselves at Manhattan, were
visited the same year by Capt. Argal, of Virginia, with a naval
force, who demanded the surrender of the place to the English
crown, as properly constituting a part of Virginia. The Dutch
governor, finding himself incapable of resistance, submitted him-
self and his colony to the king of England, and under him to
the governor of Virginia. Notwithstanding this surrender, the
country still continued to be called, as before, New Netherlands,
and the settlement, the place where New York now stands, New
Amsterdam. These names they retained till the final conquest
of the country by the English, in 1(5(14. (See Sec. 37.)

1(5. In 1614, Capt. John Smith sailed from England,
with two ships, to North Virginia. During this voyage,
he ranged the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, and
gave names to several points of land, which now, for the
first time, were discovered. On . his return home> hav-
ing formed a map of the country, he presented it to

36 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

Prince Charles, who, in the warmth of admiration, de*
clared that the country should be called New England.
Cape Ann was so called by the prince in filial respect
to his mother.

11. The year 1619 forms a memorable epoch in
the history of Virginia, a provincial legislature being
at this time introduced, in which the colonists (vere
represented by delegates chosen by themselves.

This colonial assembly, the first legislature to which the peo-
ple of America sent representatives, was convoked by Sir George
Yeardly, the governor-general of the colony, and met at James-
town, on the 19th of June. Before this, the colonists had been
ruled rather as soldiers in garrison, by martial law; but now they
were invested with the privileges of freemen. They were di-
vided into eleven corporations, each of which was represented
in the assembly.

The following year, the colony received a large accession
to their number. Eleven ships arrived, with twelve hundred
and sixty persons, for settlement. Nearly one thousand colonists
were resident here before. In order to attach them still more to
the country, Sir Edwin Sandys, the treasurer of the company,
recommended to send over a number of young women of reputa-
ble character, to become wives to the planters. Accordingly,
ninety at this time came over, and sixty the following year.
These were sold to the planters at the price, at first, of one hun-
dred, and, afterwards, one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco.
Tobacco, at this time, was worth three shillings per pound.
Debts incurred for the purchase of wives were recoverable before
any others.

Accessions to the colony, of a different character, were also
made about this time. By order of King James, one hundred
persons of profligate character, who had rendered themselves
obnoxious to government by their crimes, were sent to the colony
by way of punishment. This, perhaps designed for its benefit,
ad the exiles were chiefly employed as laborers, was ultimately
prejudicial to its prosperity.

During the year 1620, slave-holding was introduced into the
colony. A Dutch ship from Africa, touching at Jamestown,
landed twenty negroes for sale. These were purchased by the
planters ; and with these was introduced an evil into the coun-
try, the sad effects of which are felt to the present day.

12. The year 1620 marks the era of the first settling
of New England. On the 22d of December of this
year, a colony originally from England, known by the

SETTLEMENTS. 37

fiame of Puritans, landed at Plymouth, Massachu*
setts, and began the settlement of that place. Although
natives of England, they were driven thence by the arm
of persecution, for urging a more thorough reformation
in the church of England.

They fled from England, first to Amsterdam, in Hol-
land, in 1G07, with their pastor, the Rev. Mr. Robin-
son. From Amsterdam, they soon after removed to
Ley den, where they continued until they embarked for
America.

Among the motives which influenced them to remove
to America, the prospect of enjoying " a purer worship
and greater liberty of conscience," was the principal.
To secure these objects, they were willing to become
exiles from a civilized country, and encounter the dan-
gers and privations which might meet them in a wil-
derness.

The people who first settled New England were principally
from the counties of Nottinghamshire, Lancashire, and York-
shire. In these counties, there prevailed, about the year 1602,
an extensive revival of religion. The new converts, wishing to
worship God in a manner more simple than was observed in the
established church, but not being allowed to do it while they
continued members of it, agreed upon a separation from it; and,
for the sake of peace, and more liberty of conscience, resolved
upon a removal to the States of Holland, which, at that time,
granted a free toleration to different denominations of Prot-
estants.

The leader of these emigrants, in the year 1607, was an able
and pious man, Mr. John Robinson, who, with his congregation,
having disposed of their property, prepared for their removal,
with a design to fix themselves at Amsterdam ; but now they
found the ports and harbors carefully watched ; and, the design
of this congregation being suspected, strict orders were given
that they should not be suffered to depart.

They were compelled to use the most secret methods, to give
extravagant fees to seamen, by whom, notwithstanding, they
were often betrayed. Twice they attempted to embark, but were
discovered and prevented. At another time, having got onboard
a ship, with their effects, the ship-master sailed a little distance,
and then returned, and delivered them to the resentment of
their enemies.

The next year, they made another attempt, in which, after the
4

38 period ii.— 1607 to 1689

severest trials, they succeeded. Having engaged a ship belong-
ing to Holland, for their conveyance, they were going on board
By some treachery, their enemies had been informed of their
design, and, at this juncture, a great number of armed men came
upon them. A part of the men were on board, without any of
their effects ; the women and children were in a bark approach-
ing the ship. The Dutch captain, apprehensive of danger to
himself, hoisted sail, and, with a fair wind, directed his course
to Holland.

The passengers used every effort to persuade him to return,
but in vain. They saw their wives and children fall into the
hands of merciless enemies, while unable to afford them any re-
lief. They had none of their effects, not "even a change of
clothes, on board.

A violent storm came on, which raged seven days, without
intermission. By the violence of the storm, they were driven to
the coast of Norway. On a sudden, the sailors exclaimed, " The
ship has foundered; she sinks; she sinks!" The seamen trem-
bled in despair ; the pilgrims looked up to God, and cried, " Yet,
Lord, thou canst save; yet, Lord, thou canst save." To the
astonishment of all, the vessel soon began to rise ; rode out the
storm, and, at length, reached its destined port. After some
time, all their friends who had been left, arrived safely in Hol-
land.

This congregation fixed their residence at Amsterdam. But,
in consequence of some unhappy disputes which then agitated
the other English churches in that city, they thought it prudent
to remove. Accordingly, they retired the next year, and settled
in the city of Leyden. Here they were kindly received, and
enjoyed a quiet habitation. As the flames of religious tyranny
and persecution continued to rage in England, many of their
countrymen joined them. Under the able ministry of their be-
loved pastor, they continued in great union and prosperity, and
became a numerous congregation.

After remaining a number of years in Holland, this little flocb
found their situation, on many accounts, unpleasant. The im
moralities of their neighbors were dangerous to the rising gene-
ration ; the difficulties of procuring a comfortable living induced
not a few of their sons to enter the Dutch armies ; and. at no dis-
tant day, there was reason to apprehend their posterity would
become incorporated with the people of the country, and their
church become extinct.

These considerations, added to the more powerful motive, the
hope of laying a foundation for the extensive advancement of
the kingdom of Christ in the western wilderness, induced them
to remove to America. Previous to their final determination, aa
their governing maxim always was, " In all thy ways acknowl-

SETTLEMENTS. 6\J

«dge God, and he shall direct thy paths," tiiey set apart a day
for fasting and prayer, to seek direction from God.*

Having decided to settle in Virginia, their next object was to
obtain a patent, which they at length effected, from the London
company. At the same time, they received from King James
an intimation, that they should riot be molested in respect to the
enjoyment of their religion. They now began to prepare them-
selves for their momentous enterprise. For this purpose, they
procured two vessels, the Speedwell and the Mayflower. The
Speedwell, of sixty tons, they purchased in Holland, with the
intention of keeping her for their accommodation in America.
The Mayflower, of one hundred and eighty tons, they hired at
London.

All things being in readiness for their departure fromLeyden,
they kept a day of solemn humiliation and prayer. On the 21st
of July, the pilgrims went to Delfthaven, a place about twenty
miles from Leyaen, and two miles from Jlotterdam. Here they
were to embark. To this port they were kindly attended by
many of their brethren and friends from Amsterdam, as well
as from Leyden. Leaving Delfthaven, they sailed for South-
hampton, at which place they were joined by the rest of their
company from London, in the Mayflower. On the 5th of Au-
gust, 1620, both vessels set sail for the new world ; but before
proceeding far, the Speedwell sprung a-leak, and at Plymouth,
whither they put in, she was condemned as not seaworthy.
Under these circumstances, a part of the emigrants were dis-
missed, and the rest were taken on board of the Mayflower.

With one hundred passengers, this vessel sailed from Plymouth,
September 6th. For two months they were tossed and driven
upon the tempestuous ocean; till, at length, on the 9th of No-
vember, they had the happiness to descry the bleak and dreary
shores of Cape Cod. The part then discovered was Sandy
Point, called Cape Malabar, in Chatham. But they were stiil
remote from the place which they had selected for a habitation.
It was their intention to settle near the mouth of the Hudson.
Toward that river they now bent their course. But the wintry
season, the stormy prospect, " the perilous shoals and breakers "
in their way, induced them to relinquish their design, and seek
the nearest resting-place, where they might hope for tolerable
accommodations. They therefore turned back, sailed round
Race Point, and, after two days, November 11th, anchored in
Cape Cod harbor, between Cape Cod and Plymouth. t

Before landing, having devoutly given thanks to God for their
safe arrival, they formed themselves into a body politic, forty-
one signing a solemn contract, according to the provisions of
which they were to be governed. Mr. John Carver was elected
governor for one year.

* Robbins's New England Fathers. t D>"- Pari3h

40 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

a Government being thus established, sixteen men, well armed
with a few others, were sent on shore the same day, to fetch
wood and make discoveries; but they returned at night, without
having found any person or habitation. The company, having
rested on the Lord's day, disembarked on Monday, the 13th of
November; and soon after proceeded to make further discovery
of the country.

" On Wednesday, the 15th, Miles Standish and sixteen armed
men, in searching for a convenient place for settlement, saw five
or six Indians, whom they followed several miles, until night ;
but, not overtaking them, were constrained to lodge in the woods.
The next day, they discovered heaps of earth, one of which they
dug open ; but finding within implements of war, they conclud-
ed these were Indian graves; and, therefore, replacing what they
had taken out, they left them inviolate. In different heaps of sand,
they also found baskets of corn, a quantity of which they carried
away in a great kettle, found at the ruins of an Indian house.
This providential discovery gave them seed for a future harvest,
and preserved the infant colony from famine. Before the close
of the month, Mrs. Susannah White became the mother of an
infant son, who was called Perigrine ; and this was the first child,
of European extraction, born in New England.

, On the 6th of December, the shallop was sent out with sev-
eral of the principal men, Carver, Bradford, Winslow, Standish,
and others, and eight or ten seamen, to sail round the bay, in
search of a place for settlement. The next day, this company
was divided ; and, while some travelled on shore, others coasted
in the shallop. Early on the morning of the 8th, those on
shore were surprised by a flight of arrows from a party of In-
dians ; but on the discharge of the English muskets, the Indians
instantly disappeared.

" The shallop, after imminent hazard from the loss of its rudder
and mast in a storm, and from shoals which it narrowly escaped,
reached a small island on the night of the 8th ; and here the
cempany, the next day, which was the last day of the week, re-
posed themselves with pious gratitude for their safety. On this
island they kept the Christian sabbath. The day following, they
sounded the harbor, and found it fit for shipping ; went on shore,
and explored the adjacent land, where they saw various cornfields
and brooks ; and judging the situation to be convenient for a set-
tlement, they returned with the welcome intelligence to the ship.;

" On the 15th, they weighed anchor, and proceeded with the
ship for this newly-discovered port, where they arrived on the
following day. On the 18th and 10th, they went on shore for
discovery, but returned at night to the ship. On the morning
of the 20th, after imploring divine guidance, they went on shore
again, to fix on some place for immediate settlement. Aftei
viewing the country, they concluded to settle on a high ground

SETTLEMENTS.

facing the bay, where the land was cleared, and the water was

excellent.

" On Saturday, the 23d, as many of the company as could
v ith convenience, went on shore, and felled and carried timber
to the spot designed for the erection of a building for common use.
On the Lord's day, the 24th, the people on shore were alarmed by
the cry of Indians, and expected an assault; but they continued
unmolested. On Monday, the 25th, they began to build the first
house. A platform for their ordnance demanding their earliest
attention, they began one on the 28th, on a hill, which com-
manded an extensive prospect of the plain beneath, of the ex-
panding bay, and of the distant ocean.

" In the afternoon, they divided their whole company into nine-
teen families; measured out the ground, and assigned to every
person by lot half a pole in breadth, and three poles in length,
for houses and gardens. Though most of the company were on
board the ship on the Lord's day, Dec. 31st, yet some of them
kept sabbath for the first time in their new house. Here, there
fore, is fixed the epoch of their settlement, which, in grateful
remembrance of the Christian friends whom they found at the
last town they left in their native country, they called Plymouth.
This was the foundation of the first English town built in Nevf
England."*

* Holtr.ps's Annals.

42 t^RioD ii.— 1607 to 1689.

13. In November, 1620, the same month in which the
Puritans arrived on the American coast, James I. issued
a patent granting to the Duke of Lenox, Ferdinando
Gorges, and others, styling themselves " The Council of
Plymouth, in the county of Devon, for planting and
governing New England, in America," the territory be-
tween the 40th and 48th degrees of north latitude, and
extending through the main land from sea to sea.

This territory had, until this time, been known by the name
of North Virginia ; but now it received the name of New Eng-
land, by royal authority. The patent thus issued to the council
of Plymouth, was the foundation of all the subsequent grants,
under which the colonies of New England were settled.

14. In March, 1621, the colony of Plymouth, through
Gov. Carver, entered into a league of friendship, com-
merce, and mutual defence, with Masassoit, the great
sachem of the neighboring Indians. This treaty, which
was strictly observed until the breaking out of Philip's
war, (a period of more than fifty years,) gave general
peace to the colony, and laid the foundation for their in-
timate and amicable correspondence with the neighbor-
ing Indian tribes.

The person chiefly instrumental in bringing this event to pass,
was Samoset, a sagamore or chief of the country lying at the dis-
tance of about five days' journey. He was the first visitant of the
colony at Plymouth, and greatly surprised the inhabitants, by call-
ing out, as he entered their village," Welcome, Englishmen ! wel-
come, Englishmen !" Pie had conversed with the English fisher-
men who had come to the eastern coast, and had learneo some of
the language. He informed the colony that the place where they
were settled, was called by the Indians Patuxet ; that, five years
before, a plague had swept off all the natives from the place, so
that there was neither man, woman, nor child remaining. Prov-
idence had thus singularly prepared the way for the colonies to
take possession of the land without molesting a single owner.

Samoset, having been treated with hospitality by these stran-
gers, was disposed to cultivate a further acquaintance with them ;
and, on his third visit, was accompanied by Squanto, a native of
the country, who had been carried away in 1614, by one Hunt,
and sold into Spain, but had been taken to London, whence he
had returned to America.

They informed the English that Masassoit, the greatest sachem

SETTLEMENTS. 43

of the neighboring Indians, was near, with a guard of sixty men
Mutual distrust prevented, for some time, any advances from
either side. But Squanto, who was at length sent to Masassoit,
returned, saying that the sachem wished the English to send
some one to confer with him. Mr. Edward Winslow was ac
cordingly sent, bearing suitable presents to the chief. These
proving acceptable, Masassoit left Mr. Winslow in the custody
of his men as a hostage, and ventured to the English, by whom
he was hospitably entertained, and with whom he concluded the
treaty already noticed.

15. In 1621, the colony of Virginia received from
the London company, through Sir Francis Wyat, who,
at this time, arrived as governor, a more perfect consti-
tution and form of government. The powers of this
government were vested in a governor and two coun-
cils. One of these was called the council of state, to
advise and assist the governor. This council was to
be appointed and removed by the company. The
other was called the general assembly, consisting of the
council of state, and two burgesses, or representatives,
deputed from each town, hundred, or plantation. This
assembly met annually, and were intrusted with the
business of framing laws for the colony, the governor
having a negative upon their proceedings. No laws
were valid until ratified by a court of the company in
England.

16. In 1622, the Virginia colony, which for some
time had enjoyed great prosperity, and had received fre-
quent accessions, experienced a stroke which proved
nearly fatal. The successor of Powhatan, who was
of a proud, revengeful spirit, and extremely hostile to
the colony, concerted a plan to cut them off at a blow.
On the 22d of March, it was so far put in execution,
that three hundred and forty-seven of the colony, men,
women, and children, were butchered almost in the same
instant.

The chief by whom this massacre was planned, and under
whom it was executed, was Opecancanough, the successor of
Powhatan, but a deadly foe to the English. The whole Indian
population in the surrounding country had been enlisted by thi*

44 period ir. — 1607 to 1689.

artful chief, and yet they visited the English settlements and
even purchased arms and borrowed boats to enable them to ac-
complish their savage purpose.

" On the very morning of the fatal day, as also the evening
before, they came, as at other times, into the houses of the Eng-
lish, with deer, turkeys, fish, and other things to sell. At mid-
day, the hour appointed, the blow fell ; and, in the work of death,
neither sex nor age was spared. So quick was the execution, that
few perceived the weapon or the blow which despatched them.

u Those who had sufficient warning to make resistance, saved
their lives. Nathaniel Causie, an old soldier of Capt. Smith's,
though cruelly wounded, cleaved down one of his assailants
with an axe, upon which the whole party who had surrounded
him fled, and he escaped. At another place two men held pos-
session of a house, against sixty Indians. At Warrasqueake, a
Mr. Baldwin, whose wife was so badly wounded that she lay
for dead, by repeatedly discharging his musket, drove off the
enemy, and saved both her and himself. Ralph Hamer,the his-
torian, defended himself in his house successfully, with spades,
axes and brickbats. One family, living near Martin's Hundred,
where as many as seventy-three of the English were slain, not
only escaped the massacre, but heard nothing of it, till two or
three days afterwards. Jamestown and some of the neighboring
places were saved by the disclosure of a Christian Indian, named
Chanco, who was confidentially informed of the design by his
brother, on the morning of the 22d."* As soon as the English
had time to recover themselves, they rose to avenge the death
of their slaughtered friends, and succeeded in driving far into
the wilderness such as they could not destroy. But by means of
the calamities which fell upon the English, their settlements were
reduced from eighty to eight: and by the year 1C24, out of nine
thousand persons who had been sent from England, but eighteen
hundred existed in the colony.

17. While the Virginians were mourning their
losses, the Plymouth colony began to experience the
distresses of famine. By the time their planting was
finished, in 16*23, they were destitute of bread and corn.
The most gloomy anticipations were indulged, but, by a
remarkable and well-attested interference of Divine
Providence, they were delivered.

From the third week in May to the middle of July, there was
no rain. Their corn, for which they had made their utmost exer-
tions, withered under the heat of a scorching sun, and the greater
part of it appeared irrecoverably lost. The Indians, seeing then

* Thatcher's Indian Biography

SETTLEMENTS.

prospects, observed that they would soon be subdued by famine,
when they should find them an easy prey. A public fast was ap
pointed and observed with great solemnity. The morning and
most of the day was clear and hot, but towards evening, the
clouds collected, and, like the gracious influences of God, the
rain descended in moderate yet copious showers. This revived
their expiring crop, and produced a plentiful harvest. After which
they observed a day of public thanksgiving, the origin of the
annual thanksgiving which is now observed in New England.*

18. In 1G23, a number of persons from England were
sent to America by Ferdinando Gorges, to form settle-
ments on lands which had been granted to them by the
council of Plymouth, between the Merrimac and Saga-
dahok, and extending from the ocean west to the rivers
of Canada. These settlers, arriving in the river Piscat-
aqua, began two settlements, one at the mouth, called
Little Harbor ; the other still higher up the river, at Co-
checo, afterwards called Dover. These were the first
settlements in New Hampshire.

19. In 1624, the London company, which had settled
* Robbins's New England Fathers.

46 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

Virginia, was dissolved by an act of King James I. un
der pretext of the calamities which had befallen the
colony, and the dissensions which had agitated the com-
'pany. Their charter was taken away, and the govern-
ment of the colony assumed by the crown. The king
himself appointed the governor, in whom, with twelve
counsellors, the powers of government were vested.

The London company, thus dissolved, consisted of gentlemen
of noble and disinterested views, who had expended more than
one hundred thousand pounds of their fortunes in this first at-
tempt to plant an English colony in America ; and more than
nine thousand persons had been sent from the mother country to
people this new settlement. At the time of the dissolution of
the company, scarcely two thousand persons survived.

The dissolution of the charter was a most arbitrary act in the
king ; and not less arbitrary and odious were his subsequent reg-
ulations. Under these the people lived and suffered till 1636.
At this time, inflamed to madness by the oppressive conduct of
Sir John Harvey, the then governor, they seized him, and sent
him prisoner to England. Their conduct in this was so displeas-
ing to the king, Charles I., successor of James I., that he sent
Harvey back. But, in 1639, the king appointed Sir William
Berkley to succeed him, with instructions again to allow the Vir-
ginians to elect representatives. (For the continuation of the
History of Virginia, see Sec. 45.)

20. It has been stated that the lands upon which the
Plymouth colony settled, were granted by the crown to
" the Council of Plymouth," in England, in November,
1620. This was the same month that the Puritans had
arrived in the country. (Sec. 13.) Being apprized
of this grant, the colony, in 1626, began to take meas-
ures to purchase these lands. The negotiations for this
purpose ended the next year in a patent, which the com-
pany granted them for one thousand eight hundred
pounds sterling, with ample powers of government.

The trovernment of the colony was at first formed and conducted
according to a voluntary compact, entered into before landing
(Sec. 12.) Till the year 1624, it consisted of a governor and one
assistant only. From this period, five were annually chosen, the
governor having a double vote. The number of assistants was
afterwards increased to seven. The laws of the colony were
enacted, and the affairs of government conducted, by these

V SETTLEMENTS. 47

officers, for near twenty years. In 1630, the towns in this colo-
ny, for the first time, sent deputies. The colony continued dis-
tinct near seventy years, until 1691, when, by charter of William
and Mary, it was united to the colony of Massachusetts and
the Province of Maine.

21. In 1628, the foundation was laid for another colo-
ny in New England, by the name of the Colony of Mas-
sachusetts Bay. At this time, several enterprising men
purchased of the council of Plymouth the territory
which constituted the above colony. The same year,
the purchasers sent out Mr. John Endicot, with about a
hundred adventurers, to commence a settlement, which
they effected at Salem, at that time called, by the Indians,
Naumkeak.

The territory included in the colony of Massachusetts Bay, ex-
tended three miles north of the Merrimac river, and three milea
south of Charles river, and east and west from the Atlantic to the
South sea.

The settlement of Massachusetts Bay, like the colony of
Plymouth, was commenced by non-conformists, for the purpose
of enjoying greater religious liberty in matters of worship and
discipline. Among the most active in this enterprise was Mr
Endicot, already mentioned, and Mr. White, a pious and active
minister of Dorchester, in England.

22. The following year, 1629, the Massachusetts
company was confirmed by King Charles in their title
to the soil ; and, at the same time, received the powers
of civil government. They were incorporated by the
name of " the Governor and Company of Massachusetts
Bay, in New England." Soon after, a form of govern-
ment for the new colony was settled. Mr. Endicot,
already in the colony, was appointed governor.

On the appointment of Mr. Endicot as governor, an expedi-
tion was fitted out for the purpose of giving an impulse to the
colony. Five ships were provided, which, being laden with cat-
tle and other necessaries, sailed from England, with nearly three
hundred planters, and arrived at Salem in June. They found
the settlement in prosperous circumstances ; yet, not being them-
selves pleased with the situation of Salem, two hundred of them
removed, and settled at a place which they called Ckarlcslown.

23. In the month of August of the same year, it was
determined by the company in England, that the gov-

48 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

eminent and the patent of the plantation should be trans-
ferred from London to Massachusetts Bay. At the same
time, a new election of officers for the colony took
place. John Winthrop was chosen governor, and Thom-
as Dudley deputy-governor. Soon after their appoint-
ment, they sailed with a large company, some of whom
settled at Charlestown, others at Boston, and in towns
adjacent.

On the arrival of Gov. Winthrop, in June, who continued from
that lime to his death the head and father of the colony, he
found the plantation in a distressed and suffering state. In the
preceding autumn, the colony contained about three hundred
inhabitants. Eighty of these had died, and a great part of
the survivors were in a weak and sickly state. Their supply of
corn was not •sufficient for more than a fortnight, and their othei
provisions were nearly exhausted.

In addition to these evils, they were informed that a combina-
tion of the various tribes of Indians was forming for the utter ex-
tirpation of the colony. Their strength was weakness, but their
confidence was in God, and they were not forsaken. Many of
the planters, who arrived this summer, after long voyages, were
in a sickly state, and disease continued to rage through the sea-
son. By the close of the year, the number of deaths exceeded
two hundred. Among these were several of the principal per-
sons in the colnny. Mr. Higginson, the venerable minister of
Salem, spent about a year with that parent church, and was re-
moved to the church in glory. His excellent colleague. Mr.
Skelton, did not long survive him. Mr. Johnson, one of the
assistants, and his lady, who was a great patroness of the settle-
ment, died soon after their arrival. Of the latter, an early his-
torian observes, " She left an earthly paradise, in the family of
an earldom, to encounter the sorrows of a wilderness, for the
entertainments of a pure worship in the house of God ; and then
immediately left that wilderness for the heavenly paradise."

The succeeding winter commenced in December with great
severity. Few of the houses which had been erected were com-
fortable, and the most of them were miserable coverings. Un-
used to such seventies of climate, the poor people suffered
severely from the cold. Many were frozen to death. The in-
conveniences of their accommodations increased tne diseases
which continued to prevail among them.

But their constancy had not yet been brought to the last trial.
During the continuance of the severe season, their stock of pro-
visions began to fail. Those who wanted were supplied by those
who possessed, us long as any remained. A poor man came to thfl

SETTLEMENTS. 49

governor to complain, and was informed that the last bread of hia
house was in the oven. Many subsisted upon shell-fish, ground-
nuts, and acorns, which, at that season, could not have been pro-
cured but with the utmost difficulty.

In consideration of their perilous condition, the sixth day of
February was appointed for a day of public fasting and prayer,
to seek deliverance from God. On the fifth of February, the
'ay before the appointed fast, the ship Lion, which had been
ient to England for supplies, arrived laden with provisions. She
had a stormy passage, and rode amidst heavy drifts of ice, after
entering the harbor. These provisions were distributed among
the people, according to their necessities, and their appointed
fast was exchanged for a day of general thanksgiving.*

24. In 1632, Charles I. completed a patent to Coecil-
ius Calvert, otherwise called Lord Baltimore, which had
been designed for his father, by which was conveyed tc
him a tract of country on the Chesapeake bay, which,
in honor of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry the
Great of France, he named Maryland.

George Calvert, the father, having embraced the Roman Cath-
olic religion, found his situation in England so unpleasant, that,
for the sake of enjoying his religious opinions in peace, he made
a visit to America, and having explored the territory above men-
tioned, returned to England, for the purpose of procuring a pat-
ent of it. Before it was completed, he died, and the patent was
made out to his son, Cecil. By this patent, the latter came into
possession of the country from the Potomac to the 40th degree
of north latitude. This grant covered the land which had long
before been granted to Virginia, as what was now granted to
Lord Baltimore was in part subsequently given to William Penn.
In consequence of these arbitrary acts of the crown, long and
obstinate contentions arose between the descendants of Perm and
Lord Baltimore.

25. In 1633, Lord Baltimore appointed his brother,
Leonard Calvert, governor of the province, who, with about
two hundred planters, mostly Roman Catholics, left Eng-
land near the close of this year, and arriving, in 1634, at
the mouth of the river Potomac, purchased of the Indians
Yoamaco, a considerable village, where they formed a
settlement, to which they gave the name of St. Mary.

The charter granted to the inhabitants of Maryland. conferred
on them more ample privileges than had been conferred on any

* Robbins's New England Fathers

60 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

other colony in America. Among these privileges was that of
passing laws without any reservation, on the part of the crown,
to revoke them. This and other favorable circumstances con-
tributed to the rapid settlement of Maryland.

At first, when few in number, the freemen assembled in per-
son, and enacted the necessary laws; but, in 1639, it was found
expedient to constitute a " house of assembly." This consisted
of representatives chosen by the people, of others appointed by
the proprietor, and of the governor and secretary, who sat together.
In 1650, the legislative body was divided into an upper and lower
house — the members of the former being appointed by the pro
prietor; those of the latter by the people.

Few of the colonies escaped intestine troubles; nor did Maryland
form an exception. In 1645, a rebellion broke out, chiefly caused
by one William Clayborne. This man, under license from the
king, had, as early as 1631, formed a settlement on the island of
Kent ; and when the grant was made to Lord Baltimore, he re
fused to submit to his authority. Being convicted of murder
and other high crimes, he fled; but, in 1645, he returned, and,
heading a party of insurgents, for a time overthrew the govern
ment. The next year, order was restored, and Calvert, the gov
ernor, who had been obliged to flee, resumed his office.

In 1652, Lord Baltimore was deprived of the government, by
the English parliament; but at the restoration in 1660, Philip
Calvert was appointed governor, and the ancient order of things'
was restored. In 1689, on the accession of William and Mary,
persons in their interest usurped the government of the colony ;
but in 1716, the proprietor was restored to his rights. From this*
time until the revolution, he continued to enjoy them ; but, at
this latter date, the people assumed the government to them
selves.

26. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecti-
cut. This was a trading-house at Windsor, the mate-
rials of which a party of Plymouth adventurers trans-
ported in a vessel up Connecticut river.

The first discoveries made of this part of New England were
of its principal river, and the fine meadows lying upon its banks.
Whether the Dutch at New Netherlands, or the people of New
Plymouth, were the first discoverers of the river, is not certain.
Both the English and Dutch claimed this honor, and both pur
chased and made a settlement of the lands upon it nearly at the
same time.

In 1631, Wahquimicut, a sachem upon the river Connecticut,
made a journey to Plymouth and Boston, earnestly soliciting the
governors of each of the colonies to send men, to form settle-
ments upon the river. He represented the country as exceed-

SETTLEMENTS. 51

mgly fruitful, and promised that he would supply the English,
if they would make a settlement there, with corn annually, and
give them eighty beaver-skins. He urged that two men might
be sent to view the country. Had this invitation been accepted,
it might have prevented the Dutch claim to any part of the lands
upon the river, and opened an extensive trade in hemp, furs,
and deer-skins, with all the Indians upon it, and far into Canada.

The governor of Massachusetts treated the sachem and his
company with generosity, but paid no further attention to his
proposal. Mr. Winslow, the governor of Plymouth, judging it
worthy of attention, himself made a journey to Connecticut,
discovered the river, and the lands adjacent.

Two years from this time, the people of Plymouth began to
make preparations for erecting a trading-house, and establishing
a small company upon the river. In the mean time, the Dutch,
having heard of the intended enterprise of the people of Plym-
outh, sent a party to the river, who erected a fort, where the
city of Hartford is now situated.

Having at length prepared the frame of a house, William
Holmes, who commanded the Plymouth expedition, proceeded
in a vessel with his party for Connecticut. He had a commis-
sion from the governor of Plymouth, and a chosen company to
accomplish his design. After entering the river, he found that
the Dutch had entered before him, constructed a light fort, and
planted two pieces of cannon. This was erected at the place since
called Hartford. The Dutch forbid Holmes going up the river,
stood by their cannon, and ordered him to strike his colors, or they
would fire upon him. But being a man of spirit, he assured them
that he had a commission from the governor of Plymouth to go
up the river, and that he must obey his orders. They poured
out their threats ; but he proceeded, and, landing on the west side
of the river, erected his house below the mouth of the little river
in Windsor. The house was covered with the utmost despatch,
and fortified with palisades. The Dutch, considering them as
intruders, sent, the next year, a band of seventy men to drive
them from the country; but finding them strongly posted, they
relinquished the design.

27. In the autumn of 1635, a company, consisting
of sixty men, women, and children, from the settlements
of Newtown and Watertovvn, in Massachusetts, com-
menced their journey through the wilderness to Con-
necticut river. On their arrival, they settled at Wind*
Bor, Wethersfield, and Hartford.

They commenced their journey on the 15th of October. A
wide wilderness spread before them. With incredible difficulty

52 period ii. — 1607 to 16S9

they made their way through swamps and rivers, over hills and
mountains. So long were they on their journey, and so much
time was spent in passing the river, and in getting over their cattle,
that, after all their exertions, winter came upon them before
they were prepared. This was an occasion of ^reat distress and
damage to the planters. By the 15th of November, Connecticut
river was frozen over, and the snow was so deep, and the sea-
son so tempestuous, that a considerable number of the cattle,
which had been driven from Massachusetts, could not be brought
across the river. The people had so little time to prepare their
huts and houses, and to erect sheds and shelters for their cattle,
that the sufferings of man and beast were extreme.

It being impracticable to transport much provision or furni-
ture through a pathless wilderness, they were put on board sev-
eral small vessels, which were either cast away or did not ar-
rive. Several vessels were wrecked on the coasts of New Eng-
land, by the violence of the storms. Two shallops, laden with
goods from Boston for Connecticut, were cast away, and the men,
with every thing on board, lost. A vessel with six of the Con-
necticut people on board, which sailed from the river for Boston,
early in November, was. about the middle of the month, cast
away in Manamet bay. The men got on shore, and, after wan
dering ten days in a deep snow and a severe season, without
meeting any human being, arrived, nearlv spent with cold and
fatigue, at New Plymouth.

About the first of December, provisions generally failed in
the settlements on the river, and famine and death looked the
inhabitants in the face. Some of theni, driven by hunger, at-
tempted their way, in this severe season, through the wilderness
from Connecticut to Massachusetts. Of thirteen, in one com-
pany, who made this attempt, one. in passing the rivers, fell
through the ice, and was drowned. The other twelve were ten
days on their journey, and would all have perished had it not
been for the assistance of the Indians. Such was the general
distress early in December, that a considerable part of the new
settlers were obliged to abandon their habitations. Seventy per-
sons, men. women and children, determined to go down the
river to meet their provisions, as the onlv expedient to preserve
their lives. Not meeting with the vessels which they expected,
they all went on board the Rebecca, a vessel of about sixty tons.
This, two days before, was frozen in. twentv miles up the river;
but, by the falling of a small rain, together with the tide, the ice
became so broken, that she was enabled to get out. She ran,
however, upon the bar. and the people were forced to unlade
her to get her off. She was reladed, and in five days reached
Boston.

The people who kept their stations on the river, suffered in ac
extreme degree. After all the help they were able to obtain, by

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54 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

29. This year, 1636, Roger Williams, having been
banished from the colony of Massachusetts in 1634, re-
moved with his family to Mooshawsic, and began a
plantation, which he called Providence. From this we
date the settlement of Rhode Island.

Mr. Williams, who thus commenced the settlement of Rhode
Island, came from England in 1631 ; and, having resided a short
time at Plymouth, removed to Salem, in Massachusetts, and be-
came the pastor of the church in that place. During his con-
nection with the people of Salem, he promulgated opinions
which were contrary to those prevalent at that day in the colo-
nies, and among them, " that the civil magistrate is bound to
afford equal protection to every denomination of Christians."
On account of this doctrine, he was sentenced to depart out of
the territory. At first he repaired to Seeconk, where he pro
cured a grant of land from the Indians. " Being informed, how-
ever, by the governor of Plymouth, that the land was within the
limits of that colony, he proceeded to Mooshawsic, where, in 1636,
with those friends who followed him, he began a plantation. He
purchased the land of the Indians, and, in grateful acknowledg-
ment of the kindness of heaven, he called the place Providence.
Acting in conformity with the wise and liberal principle, for
avowing and maintaining which, he had suffered banishment,
he allowed entire freedom of conscience to all who came within
his borders. And to him must be given the glory of having first
set a practical example of the equal toleration of all religious
sects, in the same political community. His labors were not
confined to h'o civilized brethren. He labored to enlighten, im-
prove, and conciliate the savages. He learned their language,
travelled among them, and gained the entire confidence of theii
chiefs. He had often the happiness, by his influence over them,.
of saving from injury the colony which had proclaimed him an
outlaw, and driven him into the wilderness."*

In 1638, William Coddington and seventeen others, being per-
secuted for their religious tenets in Massachusetts, followed Mr.
Williams to Providence. By his advice, they purchased of the
Indians the island Aquetneck, and began a settlement on the
northern part of it. Others followed the next summer, and com-
menced another settlement on the south-western side — dividing
the island into two townships, Portsmouth and Newport. They
formed themselves into a body politic, and elected Mr. Codding-
ton chief magistrate.

In 1640, the inhabitants of Providence agreed upon a form of
government. Rhode Island, so called from a fancied resem
blance to the ancient island of Rhodes, soon began to be exten

* History of the United' States

SETTLEMENTS. LUt

sively settled, both on account of its natural fertility, and also on
account of the religious freedom allowed to all denominations.

In 1(544, Roger Williams visited England, as agent of the set-
tlers, and obtained of the Earl of Warwick, one of the Plymouth
company, a free charter of incorporation for Providence and
Rhode Island plantations.

In 1663, a royal charter was granted to them, by Charles II.
This charter constituted an assembly, consisting of a governor,
deputy-governor, and ten assistants, with the representatives
from the several towns, all to be chosen by the freemen.

In 168G, Andros being made governor of New England, he
dissolved the charter of Rhode Island, and appointed a council
to assist him in governing the colony. Three years after, Wil-
liam, Prince of Orange, ascended the throne of England, and
Andros was seized and imprisoned ; (Period iii. Sec. 1.) upon
which the freemen assembled at Newport, and, having resumed
their charter, restored all the officers whom Andros had displaced.

30. The year 1637 is remarkable, in the history of
Connecticut, for the war with the Pequots, a tribe of
Indians, whose principal settlement was on a hill, in
the present town of Groton.

Prior to this time, the Pequots had frequently annoyed the
infant colony, and in several instances had killed some of its in-
habitants. In March of this year, the commander of Saybrook
fort, with twelve men, was attacked by them, and three of hia
party killed. In April, another portion of this tribe assaulted
the people of Wethersfield, as they were going to their fields to
labor, and killed six men and three women. Two girls were
taken captive by them, and twenty cows were killed.

In this perilous state of the colony, a court was summoned at
Hartford, May 1. After mature deliberation, it was determined
that war should be commenced against the Pequots.

Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were
ordered to be raised ; forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Wind-
sor, and eighteen from Wethersfield.

With these troops, together with seventy river and Mohegan
Indians, Capt. Mason, to whom the command of the expedition
was given, sailed down the river Connecticut to Saybrook. Here
a plan of operations was formed, agreeably to which, on the 26th
of May, about the dawn of day, Capt. Mason surprised Mystic,
one of the principal forts oi the enemy, in the present tc ,vn of
Stonington. On their near approach to the fort, a dog barked,
and an Indian, who now discovered them, cried out, " O wanux '
O wanux !" Englishmen ! Englishmen !

The troops instantly pressed forward, and fired. The destruc-
tion of the enemy soon became terrible, but they rallied at length

50 PERIOD II. 1607 TO 1689.

And made a manly resistance. After a severe and protracted
conflict, Capt. Mason and his troops being nearly exhausted,
and victory still doubtful, he cried out to his men, We must burn
Uiem .'

At the same instant, seizing a firebrand, he applied it to a wig-
wam. The flames spread rapidly on every side ; and as the
sun rose upon the scene, it showed the work of destruction to
be complete. Seventy wigwams were in ruins, and between five
and six hundred Indians lay bleeding on the ground, or smoul-
dering in the ashes.

But, though the victory was complete, the troops were now in
great distress. Besides two killed, sixteen of their number were
wounded. Their surgeon, medicines, and provisions, were on
board some vessels, on their way to Pequot harbor, now New
London. While consulting what should be done in this emer-
gency, how great was their joy to descry their vessels standing
directly towards the harbor, under a prosperous wind !

Soon after, a detachment of nearly two hundred men, from
Massachusetts and Plymouth, arrived to assist Connecticut in
prosecuting the war.

Sassacus, the great sachem of the Pequots, and his warriors,
were so appalled at the destruction of Mystic, that they fled
towards Hudson's river. The troops pursued them as far as a
great swamp in Fairfield, where another action took place, in
which the Indians were entirely vanquished.

This was followed by a treaty with the remaining Pequots,
about two hundred in number, agreeably to which they were di
vided among the Narragansetts and Mohegans.

Thus terminated a conflict, which, for a time, was eminently
distressing to the colonies. This event of peace was celebrated
throughout New England, by a day of thanksgiving and praise.

31. During the expedition against the Pequots, the
English became acquainted with Quinnapiak, or New
Haven; and the next year, 1638, the settlement of that
town was effected. This, and the adjoining towns, soon
after settled, were distinguished by the name of the
colony of New Haven.

Among the founders of this colony, which was the fourth in
New England, was Mr. John Davenport, for some time a dis-
tinguished minister in London. To avoid the indignation of the
persecuting Archbishop Laud, in 1633, he fled to Holland. Hear-
ing, while in exile, of the prosperity of the New England set-
tlements, he meditated a removal to America. On his return
to England, Mr. Theopliilus Eaton, an eminent merchant in
Londcn, with Mr. Hopkins, afterwards governor of Connecticut,

SETTLEMENTS. 57

and several others, determined to accompany him. They ar-
rived in Boston in June, 1637.

This company were inclined to commence a new plantation,
and lay the foundation of a separate colony. Though the most
advantageous offers were made them by the government of Mas-
sachusetts, to choose any place within their jurisdiction, they pre-
ferred a place without the limits of the existing colonies. They
accordingly fixed upon New Haven as the place of their future
residence, and on the 18th of April, they kept their first Sabbath
in the place, under a large oak tree, where Mr. Davenport
preached to them.

32. The following year, January 14, 1639, the three
towns on Connecticut river, Windsor, Hartford, and
Wethersfield, finding themselves without the limits of
the Massachusetts patent, met, and formed themselves
into a distinct commonwealth, and adopted a consti-
tution.

This constitution, which has been much admired, and which,
for more than a century and a half, underwent little alteration,
ordained that there should annually be two general assemblies,
one in April, the other in September. In April, the officers of
government were to be elected by the freemen, and to consist
of a governor, deputy-governor, and five or six assistants. The
towns were to send deputies to the general assemblies. Under
this constitution, the first governor was John Haynes, and Roger
Ludlow the first deputy- governor.

33. The example of the colony of Connecticut, in
forming a constitution, was followed, the next June, by
the colony of New Haven. Both constitutions were
essentially alike.

In October following, the government was organized, when
Mr. Eaton was chosen governor. To this office he was annually
elected, till his death, in 1657. No one of the New England
colonies was so much distinguished for good order and internal
tranquillity as the colony of New Haven. Her principal men
were distinguished for their wisdom and integrity, and directed
the affairs of the colony with so much prudence, that she was
seldom disturbed by divisions within, or by aggressions from the
Indians from without.

Having been bred to mercantile employments, the first settlers
belonging to this colony were inclined to engage in commercial
pursuits ; but in these they sustained several severe losses; and,
among others, that of a new ship of one hundred and fifty tons,
which was foundered at sea, in 1647, and which was freighted with

58 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

a valuable cargo, and manned with seamen and passengers from
many of the best families in the colony. This loss discouraged,
for a time, their commercial pursuits, and engaged their atten-
tion more particularly in the employments of agriculture.

34. This same year, 1639, Sir Ferdinando Gorges
obtained of the crown a distinct charter, in confirmation
of his own grant (Sec. 18) of all the lands from Piscat-
aqua to Sagadahoc, styled the Province of Maine;
soon after which, he formed a system of government
for the province, and incorporated a city near the moun-
tain Agamenticus, in York, by the name of Georgeana;
but neither the province nor city flourished. In 1652,
the province was taken under the jurisdiction of Massa-
chusetts, by the request of the people of Maine, and
continued in this connection till 1820, when it became
a separate and independent state.

It would exceed our limits to examine the different grants of
territory, which were made, at different times, of the state of
Maine. In 1(552, at the time the province was taken under the
jurisdiction of Massachusetts, it was made a county by the name
of Yorkshire. It had the privilege of sending deputies to the
general court at Boston. Massachusetts laid claim to the prov
ince, as lying within her charter of 1628, and, after various con-
troversies, the territory was incorporated with her in 1G91. In
1786, 1787, 1802, and 1810, efforts were made by a portion of
the people of Maine to become separate from Massachusetts
proper ; but to this a majority of the inhabitants were averse.
In 1818, however, this measure was effected; and, on the
3d of March, 1820, the district, by an act of congress, became
an independent state.

35. The next event of importance in our history, is
the union of the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth,
Connecticut and New Haven, by the name of The
United Colonies of New England. The articles of
this confederation, which had been agitated for three
years, were signed May 19th, 1643.

To this union the colonies were strongly urged, by a
Bense of common danger from the Indians, (a general
«ombination of whom was expected,) and by the claims
ind encroachments of the Dutch, at Manhattan, New
)fork.

SETTLEMENTS 59

By these articles of union, each colony retained its distinct and
separate government. No two colonies might- be united into one,
nor any colony be received into the confederacy, without the con-
Bent of the whole. Each colony was to elect two commissioners,
who should meet annually, and at other times, if necessary, and
should determine " all affairs of war and peace, of leagues, aids,
charges, and numbers of men for war," &c. Upon notice that
any colony was invaded, the rest were immediately to despatch
assistance.

This union subsisted more than forty years, until the charters
of the colonies were either taken away, or suspended, by James
II. and his commissioners.

In 1648, Rhode Island petitioned to be admitted to this con-
federacy, but was denied, unless she would be incorporated with
Plymouth, and lose her separate existence. This she refused,
and was consequently excluded.

The effects of this union on the New England colonies were,
in a high degree, salutary. On the completion of it, several In-
dian sachems, among whom were the chiefs of the Narragansett
and Mohegan tribes, came forward and submitted to the English
government. The colonies also became formidable, by means of
it, to the Dutch. This union was also made subservient to the
civil and religious improvement of the Indians.

Prior to this period, Mr. Mayhew and the devoted Elliot had
made considerable progress towards civilizing the Indians, and
converting them to Christianity. They had learned the Indian
language, and had preached to the Indians in their own tongue.

Upon a report in England of what these men had done, a so-
ciety was formed for propagating the gospel among the Indians,
which sent over books, money, &c. to be distributed by the com-
missioners of the United Colonies.

The Indians, at first, made great opposition to Christianity ;
and such was their aversion to it, that, had they not been over-
awed by the United Colonies, it is probable they would have put
to death those among them who embraced it. Such, however,
were the ardor, energy and ability of Messrs. Mayhew and Elliot,
aided by the countenance and support of government, and blessed
by Providence, that, in 1660, there were ten towns of converted
Indians in Massachusetts. In 1695, there were not less than
three thousand adult Indian converts in the islands of Martha's
Vineyard and Nantucket.

36. 1662. The colony of Connecticut, having pe-
titioned King Charles II. through Governor Winthrop,
for a charter of incorporation, his majesty, in accordance
with their wishes, issued his letters patent, April 2d,
constituting them a body corporate and politic, by the

60 period li.— 1607 to 1689.

name of The Governor and Company of the English
Colony of Connecticut, in New England, in America.

The territory granted to Lord Say and Seal, and Lord Brooke,
in J 631, (Sec. 28,) and confirmed by this charter to Connecticut,
was bounded east by Narragansett river ; south by Long Island
sound ; north by Massachusetts ; and extended west to the Pa
cific ocean.

The charter of Connecticut ordained that there should be a
governor, deputy-governor, and twelve assistants, to be chosen
annually. The charter instituted two general assemblies foi
each year, to consist of the above officers, and deputies from the
towns ; the former to compose the upper, and the deputies the
lower, house. The government under the charter was essentially
the same with that which the people had themselves adopted in
1639, (Sec. 32,) and continued to be the constitution of the colo-
ny and state of Connecticut, until the year 1818, when a con-
vention was assembled which framed a new constitution.

This charter included the colony of New Haven ; but not be-
ing agreeable to that colony, it did not unite with Connect tcut
until two years after. The granting of a charter to Connecticut
was followed, the next year, 1663, by a similar grant to Rhode
Island and Providence plantations, as already noticed. (Sec. 29.)

37. In 1604, Charles II. granted to his brother, the
Duke of York and Albany, the territory included in the
several colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Dela-
ware. In the course of the same year, the latter de-
spatched an expedition, under command of Col. Richard
Nichols, to the Dutch colony at Manhattan, which had,
for many years, denied the right of the English to con-
trol it. This expedition arrived at Manhattan in Au-
gust, and demanded a surrender of the territory to his
English majesty. The Dutch governor, being unpre-
pared for defence, complied with the demand, and the
whole country passed into the hands of the English. In
honor of the duke, the two principal Dutch settlements
were now named New York and Albany

The first settlement of the Dutch at Manhattan, in 1613, and
their surrender to the English the same year, have already been
noticed. (Sec. 9.) Soon after, however, they revolted ; and, the
claims of the English being neglected, they continued to man-
age for themselves, until the above year, 1664.

Nichols having entered the harbor, Stuy vesan4 , the Dutch £rov-

SETTLEMENTS. 61

ernor, sent a letter to hira, to desire the reason of his approach.
To this the latter replied, the next day, by a summons to sur«
render. Stuyvesant, determining on a defence, refused to sur-
render ; but, at length, finding himself without the means of
resistance, and that many of the people were desirous of passing
under the jurisdiction of the English, he surrendered the govern
ment into the hands of Col. Nichols, who promised to secure to
the governor and inhabitants, their liberties and estates, with
all the privileges of English subjects. The administration of
Nichols continued for three years, and was marked by great
integrity and moderation. Upon his return to England, in 1667,
he was succeeded by Col. Lovelace, who administered the gov-
ernment with equal moderation.

38. A short time previous to the surrender of the
Dutch, the Duke of York conveyed to Lord Berkley and
Sir George Carteret the territory of New Jersey. This
name was given it in compliment to Carteret, who had
been governor of the Isle of Jersey, in the English
channel. Soon after the grant, but before it was known,
three persons from Long Island purchased of the natives
a tract, which was called Elizabethtown grant, and a
settlement was begun at Elizabethtown. Other towna
were soon settled by emigrants from the colonies and
from Europe. In consequence of these opposite claim3
to the territory, much discord prevailed between the pro-
prietors and the inhabitants.

The first settlement within the limits of New Jersey was made
by the Danes, about the year 1624, at a place called Bergen.
Some Dutch families, also, about the same time, planted them-
selves on the Jersey side, near New York. In 1626, a colony
of Swedes and Finns purchased land on both sides of the river
Delaware, and formed a settlement on its western bank. In 1640,
the English began a plantation at Elsingburgh, on its eastern
bank. But this was soon after broken up by the Swedes, with
the assistance of the Dutch from Manhattan. From this time,
until 1655, the Swedes held possession of the country on both
sides of the Delaware, when the Dutch governor, Stuyvesant,
subdued them. The Dutch now held possession until 1664, when
the territory passed into the hands of the English.

39. The next year, 1665, Philip Carteret, who had
been appointed governor by the proprietors, arrived at
Elizabethtown, which he made the seat of government

62 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

He administered the government according to a consti*
tution which the proprietors had formed.

This constitution ordained a free assembly, consisting of a
governor, council, and representatives; the latter to be chosen
by each town. The legislative power resided in the assembly ;
the executive in the governor and council. (See Sec. 40.)

40. Delaware was also included in the grant to the
Duke of York. At this time, it was in possession of
the Dutch ; but an expedition being sent against it under
Sir Robert Carr, it surrendered, October 1, 1664 ; soon
after which it was placed under the authority of the
English governor of New York.

Delaware was first settled in 1627, by a number of Swedes and
Finns, who, at the instance of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Swe-
den, emigrated to America. They landed at Cape Henlopen,
which, on account of its beauty, they called Paradise Point; the
Delaware they named Swedeland Stream.

The Dutch at New Netherlands laid claim, however, to the
territory ; and mutual contests subsisted for a long time between
them and the Swedes. After several times changing masters,
the territory finally surrendered to the Dutch, who held posses-
sion of it at the time of the English expedition against it under
Carr, in 16C4. It was now considered a part of New York. In
1682, however, the Duke of York sold the town of New Castle,
and the country twelve miles around it, to William Penn, and,
some time after, the territory between New Castle and Cape
Henlopen. These tracts, then known by the name of " Territo-
ries," constitute the present state of Delaware. Until 1703, they
were governed as a part of Pennsylvania ; but, at that time, they
had liberty from the proprietor to form a separate and distinct
assembly ; the governor of Pennsylvania, however, still exercis-
ing jurisdiction over them. (Sec. 49.)

41. After the reduction of New York by Col. Nichols,
(Sec. 37.) he, writh Sir Robert Carr, George Cartwright,
and Samuel Maverick, proceeded to New England, un-
der a commission from King Charles, " to hear and de-
termine complaints and appeals, in all causes, as well
military as criminal and civil," within New England, and
to proceed in all things for settling the peace and secu-
rity of the country.

The conduct of these commissioners was exceeding-

SETTLEMENTS. 63

ly arbitrary and offensive to the colonies. Under pre-
text of executing their commission, 'they received com-
plaints against the colonies from the Indians ; required
persons, against the consent of the people, to be ad-
mitted to the privileges of freemen, to church member-
ship, and full communion ; heard and decided in causes
which had already been determined by the established
courts ; and gave protection to criminals. After involv-
ing the colonies in great embarrassment and expense,
they were at length recalled, and the country saved from
impending ruin.

42. The settlement which next claims our notice is
that of Carolina, so called in honor of Charles IX.,
under whose patronage the coast had been discovered
in 1563. The territory thus named included the lands
between the 30th and 36th degrees of north latitude,
and extending from the Atlantic ocean to the South sea.
In 1663, this tract was conveyed by Charles II., king of
England, to Lord Clarendon and seven others, with am-
ple powers to settle and govern it.

Before the above grant to Clarendon, (between 1G40 and
1650,) a settlement was begun in Albemarle county, by planters
from Virginia and emigrants from other places. This settlement
was placed under the superintendence of Gov. Berkley of Vir-
ginia.

The second settlement was made in 1665. near the mouth of
Clarendon or Cape Fear river, by emigrants from Barbadoes, who
invested Sir John Yeomans with the authority of governor
Both tbe above were within the present limits of North Carolina.

The third settlement was at Port Royal, in the present limits
of South Carolina, under direction of Governor Sayle, 1670. In
1671 , lie founded Old Charleston, on the banks of the river Ash-
Isv. In 1660, this location was abandoned for Oyster Point, on
which was commenced the present city of Charleston.

In the year l'>71, Gov. Sayle dying. Sir John Yeomans. gov-
ernor of Clarendon, was appointed to succeed him. In conse-
quence of this, the inhabitants of this latter settlement, within a
few years, removed to that of Charleston, and the three govern-
ments consequently were reduced to two. Being widely separated,
the distinctive names of North and South Carolina began to bo
used in respect to them.

During the administration of Gov. Sayle, a constitution, pre«

64 period i.— 1607 to 1689.

Eared at the request of the proprietors, by the celebrated Mr
iocke, was attempted to be put in force.
By this constitution, a president of a palatine court, to consist
of the proprietors, was to be chosen for life. An hereditary no
bility was to be established, consisting of landgraves and caciques
A parliament, chosen once in two years, was to be held, consisting
of the proprietors, of the nobility, and of representatives from each
district. All were to meet in one apartment, and to have an
equal voice. No business, however, could be proposed in parlia-
ment, until it had been debated in a grand council, .to consist of
the governor, nobility, and deputies of proprietors.

This constitution it was found impossible to reduce to practice.
Great opposition was made to it ; and in Albemarle an insurrec-
tion was occasioned by an attempt to enforce it. It was, there
fore, at length, abandoned, and the former proprietary government
restored. This latter sort of government continued from 16G9 to
1719, when the charter was vacated by the crown, and the gov-
ernment taken under the royal protection. In 1729, the proprie-
tors surrendered their right to the government, and interest in the
soil, to the king, upon which the province was divided into North
and South Carolina, and their governors and councils were ap-
pointed by the crown. (See Period III. Sec. 20.)

43. The year 1675 was distinguished for a memorable
war, in New England, with the Indians, called King
Philip's war ; by which the peace of the colonies was
greatly disturbed, and their existence, for a time, serious-
ly endangered.

For several years previous to the opening of the war, the In-
dians had regarded the English with growing jealousy. They
saw them increasing in numbers, and rapidly extending their
settlements. At the same time, their own hunting grounds were
visibly narrowing, and their power and privileges sensibly de-
creasing. The prospect before them was humbling to the
haughty descendants of the original lords of the soil.

The principal exciter of the Indians, at this time, against the
English, was Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags, grandson and
successor of Masassoit, who, fifty years before, had made a treaty
with the colony of Plymouth. (Sec. 14.) The residence of Philip
was at Mount Hope, in Bristol, Rhode Island.

The immediate cause of the war was the execution of three
Indians by the English, whom Philip had excited to murder one
Sausaman, an Indian missionary. Sausaman, being friendly to
the English, had informed them that Philip, with several tribes,
was plotting their destruction.

The execution of these Indians roused the anger of Philip, who
immediately armed his men, and commenced hostilities. Their

SETTLEMENTS. G5

first attack was made June 24th, upon the people of Swanzey
in Plymouth colony, as they were returning from public worship,
on a day of humiliation and prayer, which had been appointed
under an apprehension of an approaching war. Eight or nine
persons were killed.

The country being immediately alarmed, the troops of the
colony repaired to the defence of Swanzey. On the 28th, a com
pany of horse and a company of foot, with one hundred and ten
volunteers from Boston, joined the Plymouth forces. The next
morning, an attack was made upon a party of Philip's men, who
were pursued, and five or six of them killed. This resolute con-
duct of the English made a deep impression on the enemy.
Philip, with his forces, left Mount Hope the same night ; mark
ing his route, however, with the burning of houses, and the
scalping of the defenceless inhabitants.

It being known that the Narragansets favored the cause of
Philip, he having sent his women and children to them for pro
tection, the Massachusetts forces, under Capt. Hutchinson, pro-
ceeded forthwith into their country, either to renew a treaty with
them, or to give them battle. Fortunately, a treaty was conclud-
ed, and the troops returned.

On the 17th of July, news arrived that Philip, with his war-
riors, was in a swamp at Pocasset, now Tiverton. The Massa-
chusetts and Plymouth forces immediately marched to that place,
and the next day resolutely charged the enemy in their recesses.
As the troops entered the swamp, the Indians continued to retire.
The English in vain pursued, till the approach of night, when
the commander ordered a retreat. Many of the English were
killed, and the enemy seemed to take courage.

It being impossible to encounter the Indians with advantage
in the swamps, it was determined to starve them out; but Philip,
apprehending their design, contrived to escape with his forces.

He now fled to the Nipmucks, a tribe in Worcester county,
Massachusetts, whom he induced to assist him. This tribe had
already commenced hostilities against the English ; but, in the
hope of reclaiming them, the governor and council sent Captains
Wheeler and Hutchinson to treat with them. But the Indians,
having intimation of their coming, lurked in ambush for them,
fired upon them as they approached, killed eight men, and mor-
tally wounded eight more, of whom Capt. Hutchinson waa
one.

The remainder of the English fled to Quaboag, Brookfield.
The Indians, however, closely pursued them into the town, and
burnt every house excepting the one in which the inhabitants had
taken refuge. This house also, at length, they surrounded, and
" for two days continued to pour a storm of musket balls upon it,
and although great numbers passed through the walls, but ono
person was killed. With long poles they next thrust against it

period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

brands ana rags dipped in brimstone; they shot arrows of fhe>,
they loaded a cart with flax and tow, and, with long poles fastened
together, they pushed it against the house. Destruction seemed
inevitable. The house was kindling, and the savages stood ready
to destroy the first that should open the door to escape. At this
awful moment, a torrent of rain descended, and suddenly extin-
guished the kindling flames."

On the 4th of August, Major Willard came to their relief,
raised the siege, and destroyed a considerable number of the as-
sailants.

During the month of September, Hadley, Deerfield, and North-
field, on Connecticut river, wrere attacked : several of the inhab-
itants were killed, and many buildings consumed. On the 18th,
Capt. Lathrop, with several teams, and eighty young men, the
flower of the county of Essex, w7ere sent to Deerfield to trans-
port a quantity of grain to Hadley. On their return, stopping
to gather grapes at Muddy brook, they were suddenly attacked
by near eight hundred Indians. Resistance was in vain ; and
seventy of these young men fell before the merciless enemy, and
were buried in one grave. Capt. Mosely, who was at Deerfield,
hearing the report of the guns, hastened to the spot, and, with a
few men, attacked the Indians, killed ninety-six, and wounded
forty, losing himself but twro men.

SETTLEMENTS. 67

Early in October, the Springfield Indians, who had hitherto
been friendly to the English, concerted a plan, with the hostile
tribes, to burn that town. Having, under cover of night, received
two or three hundred of Philip's men into their fort, with their
assistance they set fire to the town. The plot, however, was dis-
covered so seasonably, that troops arrived from Westfield in time
to save the town, excepting thirty-two houses, which had been
previously consumed.

Soon after hostilities were commenced by Philip, the Tarren-
teens began their depredations in New Hampshire and the
Province of Maine. They robbed the boats and plundered the
houses of the English. In September, they fell on Saco, Scar-
borough, and Kittery, killed between twenty and thirty of the
inhabitants, and consigned their houses, barns and mills to the
flames.

Elated with these successes, they next advanced towards Piscata-
qua, committing similar outrages at Oyster river, Salmon Falls,
Dover and Exeter. Before winter, sixty of the English, in that
quarter, were killed, and nearly as many buildings consumed.

The Eastern Indians, however, had real cause of complaint.
One cause was the cruel treatment practised upon the family of
Squando, sachem of the Saco Indians, by a party of English
seamen, who, having heard that Indian children could swim by
instinct, overset their canoe, in which were Squando's squaw
and infant child, for the purpose of testing the truth of the re-
port. This act, wanton as well as childish, the savage justly
resented ; and the more so, as the infant some time after died,
owing, as the chief imagined, to an injury which, at that time,
it received. Added to this, several Indians having been enticed
on board a vessel, had been iniquitously sold for slaves. To re-
dress these and similar wrongs, the Indians commenced hos-
tilities.

Notwithstanding the Narragansets had pledged themselves, by
their treaty, not to engage in the war against the English, it was
discovered that they were taking part with the enemy. It was
deemed necessary, therefore, for the safety of the colonies, early
to check that powerful tribe.

Accordingly, Gov. Winslow, of Plymouth, with about one
thousand eight hundred troops from Massachusetts and Con-
necticut, and one hundred and sixty friendly Indians, com-
menced their march from Pettysquamscot, on the 19th of
December, 1G75, through a deep snow, towards the enemy, who
were in a swamp about fifteen miles distant.

The army arrived at the swamp at one in the afternoon. Soma
Indians at the edge of the swamp were fired upon, but fled.
The whole army now entered and pursued the Indians to their
fortress.

This stood on a rising ground, in the middle of the swamp

68 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

It was a work of great strength and labor, being composed of pali-
sades, and surrounded by a hedge about sixteen feet in thickness.

One entrance, only, led to the fort, through the surrounding
thicket. Upon this the English providentially fell, and, without
waitinor to form, rushed impetuously towards the fort. The
English captains entered first. The resistance of the Indians
was gallant and warlike. Captains Johnson and Davenpoit,
with many of their men, fell at the entrance. At length, the
English fell back, and were obliged to retreat out of the fort.

At this crisis, the army being on the point of a fatal repubie,
some Connecticut men, on the opposite side of the fort, discov-
ered a place destitute of palisades : they instantly sprang into
the fort, fell upon the rear of the Indians, and, aided by the rest
of the army, after a desperate conflict, achieved a complete
victory. Six hundred wigwams were now set on fire, and an
appalling scene ensued. Deep volumes of smoke rolled up to
heaven, mingled with the dying shrieks of mothers and infants,
which, with the aged and infirm, were consumed in the flames.

Even at this distant period, we cannot recall this scene without
horror, and can justify the severity of our ancestors only by ad-
mitting its necessity for self-preservation.

The Indians in the fort were estimated at four thousand : of
these, seven hundred warriors were killed, and three hundred
died of their wounds ; three hundred were taken prisoners, and
as many women and children ; the rest, except such as were
consumed, fled.

The victory of the English, complete as it was, was purchased
with blood. Six brave captains fell ; eighty of the troops were
killed or mortally wounded ; and one hundred and fifty were
wounded who recovered.

From this defeat the Indians never recovered. They were
not yet, however, effectually subdued. During the winter, they
continued their savage work of murdering and burning. The
towns of Lancaster, Medfield, Weymouth, Groton, Springfield,
Northampton, Sudbury, and Marlborough, in Massachusetts, and
of Warwick and Providence in Rhode Island, were assaulted,
and some of them partly, and others wholly, destroyed. In
March, Captain Pierce, with fifty English, and twenty friendly
Indians, were attacked, the former of whom were all slain, and
nearly all of the latter. In April, Capt. Wadsworth, while
marching with fifty men to the relief of Sudbury, was surround-
ed, and the whole were either killed on the spot, or reserved foi
long and distressing tortures.

The success of the Indians, during the winter, had been

freat ; but on the return of spring, the tide turned against them,
'he Narraganset country was scoured, and many of the
natives were killed, among whom was Canonchet, their chief
sachem.

SETTLEMENTS. 69

On the 12th of August, 1676. the finishing stroke was given to
the war in the United Colonies, by the death of Philip. After
his flight from Mount Hope, he had attempted to rouse the
Mohawks against the English. To effect this purpose, he killed,
at various times, several of that tribe, and charged it uptm the
English. But, his iniquity being discovered, he was obliged
hastily to flee, and returned to Mount Hope.

Tidings of his return being brought to Captain Church, a
man who had been of eminent service in this war, and who was
better able than any other person to provide against the wiles of
the enemy, he immediately proceeded to the place of Philip's
concealment, near Mount Hope, accompanied by a small body of
men. On his arrival, which was in the night, he placed his men
in ambushes round the swamp, charging them not to move till
daylight, that they might distinguish Philip, should he attempt
to escape. Such was his confidence of success, that, taking
Major Sandford by the hand, he said, " It is scarcely possible
that Philip should escape." At that instant, a bullet whistled
over their heads, and a volley followed.

The firing proceeded from Philip and his men, who were
now in view. Perceiving his peril, the savage chief, hoping to
effect his escape, hastily seized his powder-horn and gun, and
fled ; but, directing his course towards a spot where an English-
man and an Indian lay concealed, the former levelled his gun ;
but, missing fire, the Indian drew, and shot him through the
heart.

Capt. Church ordered him to be beheaded and quartered.
The Indian who executed this order, pronounced the warrior's
epitaph : " You have been one very great man. You have made
many a man afraid of you. But so big as you be, I will now
chop you to pieces."

Thus fell a savage hero and patriot — of whose transcendent
abilities our history furnishes melancholy evidence. The advan-
tage of civilized education, and a wider theatre of action, might
have made the name of Philip of Mount Hope as memorable as
that of Alexander or Caesar.

After the death of Philip, the war continued in the Province
of Maine, till the spring of 1678. But westward, the Indians,
having lost their chiefs, wigwams, and provisions, and perceiv-
ing further contest vain, came in singly, by tens, and by hun-
dreds, and submitted to the English.

Thu3 closed a melancholy period in the annals of New Eng-
land history; during which, six hundred men, the flower of her
strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroy-
ed, and six hundred dwelling-houses consumed. Every eleventh
family was houseless, and every eleventh soldier had sunk to his
grave. So costly was the inheritance which our fathers have
transmitted to us !

70 period ii.— 1607 to 16S9.

44. The grant of the territory of New York, by
Charles II., to his brother the Duke of York, in 1664,
has already been noticed, (Sec. 37,) as also its capture
from the Dutch, the same year. In 1673, a war com-
mencing between England and Holland, the latter sent
a small fleet to New York, to which the town immediate-
ly surrendered.

The following year, 1674, the war terminated in a
treaty between England and Holland. By this treaty
New York was restored to the English. To prevent
controversy about his title to the territory, the Duke
of York took out a new patent, and appointed Sir
Edmund Andros governor, who entered upon the duties
of his appointment in October of the same year.

The administration of Andros, however, was arbitra-
ry and severe. He admitted the people to no share in
legislation, but ruled them by laws to which they had
never given their assent.

Connecticut also experienced* the weight of his oppression and
despotism. That part of her territory west of Connecticut river,
although long before granted to the colony of Connecticut, was
included in the grant to the Duke of York. By virtue of this
grant. Andros now claimed jurisdiction over the territ^rv. and
in July. 1675, made an attempt with an armed force to take pos-
session of Saybrook Fort.

The governor and council of Connecticut, having notice of his
design, despatched Capt. Bull to defend the fort. On the arrival
of Andros at the mouth of the river, after making a show of
force, lie invited Capt. Bull to a conference. This was granted;
but no sooner had he landed, than he attempted to read his com-
mission and the duke's patent. This Capt. Bull firmly and
positively forbid ; and Sir Edmund, rinding the colonv determin-
ed, at all events, not to submit to his government, relinquished
his design, and sailed for Long Island.

45. The year 1676, so distinguished, in the annals of
New England, for the termination of Philip's war, was
not much less distinguished, in respect to Virginia, by
an insurrection known by the name of " Bacon's rebel-
lion," the evil effects of which lasted more than thirty
years. The principal causes of this rebellion are said
to have been the oppressive restrictions imposed upon

SETTLEMENTS. 71

their commerce — the granting of large tracts of land by
Gov. Berkley to his favorites, which belonged to the
colony — and the imposition of extravagant taxes.

The dissolution of the charter of Virginia by James I., in 1624,
and the subsequent appointment of ^ir William Berkley, as
nor. by Charles I., with the privilege to the people of elect-
ing their own representatiyes, haye been noticed See. "24. For
this priyilege. they were so grateful, that the Virginians continu-
ed faithful to the royal cause, even after Cromwell had usurped
the government. This loyalty brought upon them the vengeance
of parliament in 1652, at which time a fleet was despatched to
reduce them to submission. At this time, Gov. Berkley was
obliged to retire.

About the time of Cromwell's death, but before that event
took place, the Virginians proclaimed Charles II., and invit-
ed Berkley to resume his authority. On the accession of
Charles, he confirmed Berkley in his ofhce. But from this time,
the conduct of the governor was odious and oppressive. Agents
were sent to England, to lay their Grievances at the foot of the
throne : but agents were unsuccessful, and. at length, the dis-
content of the people ripened into a formidable insurrection.

The head of the insurgents was Nathaniel Bacon, an English-
man, who. soon after his arrival, had been appointed a member
of the council. He was a young man of commanding person,
and distinguished for ambition, energy and enterprise.

The colony, at this time, being engaged in war with the Sus-
quehannah Indians, Bacon despatched a messenger to Gov.
Berkley, requesting a commission to proceed against them.
This commission the governor refused, and. at the same time,
ordered Bacon to dismiss his men, and, on penalty of being
declared a rebel, to appear before himself and the council. Ex-
asperated by such treatment. Bacon, without disbanding his force,
proceeded, in a sloop, with forty of them, to Jamestown. Here a
sharp contention ensued, upon which Berkley illegally suspend-
ed him from the council. Bacon departed in a rage, with his
sloop and men ;. but. through the agency of the governor, he was
not long after seized and brought to Jamestown.

Finding that he had dismissed Bacon from the council illegal-
ly, he again admitted him. and treated him with a show of kind
cess. L pon this. Bacon renewed his request for a commission ;
but, receiving a denial, he privately left Jamestown, and. collect-
ing six hundred volunteers, returned to demand of the assembly,
then in session, the required commission. Being overawed, the
assembly advised the governor to errant it. But, soon after Bacon
had departed, the governor, by the same advice, issued a procla-
mation, denouncing him as a rebel.

Hearing what the governor had done. Bacon, instead of

72 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

marching against the Indians, returned to Jamestown, wreaking
his vengeance upon all who opposed him. Finding it in vain to
withstand him, the governor fled across the bay, and the council
dispersed, leaving Bacon in possession of supreme power.

At length, the governor, with a small force, under command
of Major Robert Beverly, crossed the bay to oppose the malecon-
tents. Civil war had now commenced. Jamestown was burnt
by Bacon's followers ; various parts of the colony were pillaged,
and the wives of those that adhered to the governor's party were
carried to the camp of the insurgents.

In the midst of these commotions, it pleased the Supreme
Ruler to withdraw Bacon by a natural death. The malecontents,
thus left to recover their reason, now began to disperse. Two of
Bacon's generals surrendered, and were pardoned, and the peo-
ple quietly returned to their homes.

Upon this, Berkley resumed the government, and peace was
restored. This rebellion formed an era of some note in the>
history of Virginia, and its unhappy effects were felt for thirty
years. During its continuance, husbandry was almost entirely
neglected, and such havock was made among all kinds of cattle,
that the people were threatened with famine. Sir William
Berkley, after having been forty years governor of Virginia, re-
turned to England, where he soon after died.

Three years after, 1679, Lord Culpepper was sent over as gov-
ernor, with certain laws prepared in conformity to the wishes of
the ministry of England, and designed to be enacted by the
assembly in Virginia. One of those laws provided for raising a
revenue, for the support of government. It made the duties
perpetual, and placed them under the direction of his majesty.
Out of the duties, Culpepper dishonestly took, as his salary, two
thousand pounds, and one hundred and sixty pounds, in addition,
for house-rent.

On presenting these laws to the assembly, Culpepper informed
them that, in case they were passed, he had instructions to offer
pardon to all who had been concerned in Bacon's rebellion ; but;
if not, he had commissions to try and hang them as rebels, and
a regiment of soldiers on the spot to support him. Thus threat-
ened, the assembly passed the laws.

From this period to the occurrence of the French war, no
events are to be found, in the history of Virginia, of sufficient
importance to be noticed in the present pages.

46. In the year 1676, the province of New Jersey
was divided into East and West Jersey, and continued
thus divided until 1702, when the proprietors surrender-
ed the government to the crown, under Queen Anne,
upon which, the two provinces were united into one, and

SETTLEMENTS. 73

Lord Cornbury was appointed governor over this and the
province of New York. This arrangement of a single
governor for the, two provinces continued till the year
1733, (although each chose a separate assembly ;) but at
this time, the people of New Jersey having petitioned
for an alteration, his majesty appointed Lewis Morris to
the chief magistracy of the latter province.

An account of the settlement of New Jersey, and the grant
of it by the Duke of York to Lord Berkley and Sir George
Carteret, in 1G64, will* be found at Sec. 38. In 1665, Carteret
assumed the government, by agreement with Berkley. (Sec. 39.)
In 1674, Lord Berkley made a conveyance of his half to John
Fenwick, in trust for Edward Billinge and his assigns. Bil-
linge, being in debt, presented his interest in the province to hia
creditors, William Jones and others, being appointed trustees to
dispose of the lands.

In the division-of 1676, Carteret took East Jersey, the govern-
ment of which he retained; and the trustees of Billinge, West
Jersey. The Duke of York, though he had conveyed away his
powers of government, when he sold the province to Berkley and
Carteret, in 1664, unjustly claimed West Jersey, as a dependency
of New York. These claims of the duke, Sir Edmund Andros,
his governor in America, attempted to assert, and actually ex-
tended his jurisdiction over the province. But, at length, through
the discontent and remonstrances of the citizens, the subject was
referred to commissioners, who decided against the Duke of
York ; upon which, in 1680, he relinquished his claims to the
proprietors. ,

In 1682, Carteret, disgusted with the people, sold his right to
East Jersey to William Penn and others, who immediately sold
one half of it to the Earl of Perth and his associates. Robert
Barclay, the celebrated author of " the Apology for the Quakers,"
was the next year made governor of East Jersey.

In 1686, both the Jerseys and New York were annexed to
New England, in which connection they continued till the acces-
sion of William and Mary to the throne of England, in 1639.
*' A government under the proprietors of both the Jerseys had
become extremely disagreeable to the inhabitants, who, from
various causes, became so uneasy, that the proprietors surrender-
ed the government of East and West Jersey to the crown in
1702, whicji Queen Anne very readily accepted."

" The two provinces were now united into one, and Lord
Cornbury was appointed governor over the united colony, and
received his commission and instructions from the queen.

" The freemen chose the house of representatives, consisting
7

74 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

of twenty -four members, but the governor and council, consisting
of twelve members, were appointed by the crown.

47. In 1677, a controversy which had subsisted for
some time between the colony of Massachusetts and the
heirs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, relative to the province
of Maine, was settled in England, and the colony
adjudged to Gorges' heirs. Upon this, Massachusetts
purchased the title for one thousand two hundred pounds
sterling, and the territory, from that time till 1820, was
a part of Massachusetts.

Both the colony of Massachusetts and the heirs of Gorges
claimed the province of Maine ; the former by virtue of her
patent of 1(528, {Sec. 21.) which was construed as including that
territory ; the claim of the latter was founded upon a charter
granted to Gorges in 1639. (Sec. 34.)

48. Two years after this adjustment, viz. in 1679, a
commission was made out, by order of Charles II., for
the separation of New Hampshire from the jurisdiction
of Massachusetts, and its erection into a royal province.
The form of government sent over by the king, ordained a
president and council to govern the province, with an
assembly, &,c. , the assembly to be chosen by the peo-
ple ; the president and council to be appointed by the
crown.

[n 1629, the Plymouth company granted to John Mason the
territory called New Hampshire. About the year 1640, the
settlements now being considerable, the patent holders agreed to
assign their right of jurisdiction to Massachusetts. The colony
of New Hampshire, therefore, remained under the government
of Massachusetts, until it was separated by the king's commis-
sion, in 1679.

The first legislative assembly, under the above commission,
was convened March 16, 1680. when the colony of New Hamp-
shire was declared to be inMependent of Massachusetts. This
separation, however, was disagreeable to most of the people : for
near forty years, they had enjoyed under Massachusetts the privi-
lege of choosing their own rulers, and had derived great peace
and harmony from an impartial government. Nor did this prov-
ince long enjoy tranquillity. Mason, grandson of the Mason to
wiiom New Hampshire had been originally granted, came over
the next year, and demanded, by virtue of his claims to the soil,
a seat in the council. This being granted, he soon after return-

SETTLEMENTS. 75

ad to England, and surrendered a part of his claims to the king,
and mortgaged the remainder to Edward Cranfield, who was
appointed lieutenant-governor, and shortly after repaired to New
Hampshire.

It is necessary to add, that the Rev. Mr. Wheelright and oth-
ers, in 1629, the same year that the grant was made to Mason by
the Plymouth company, bought of the Indians a large tract of
land in New Hampshire. The same land was. therefore, claimed
under both these grants, and the foundation thus laid of serious
disputes in the colony.

Cranfield, finding it for his Interest to favor the claim of
Mason to the province, soon called upon the inhabitants to take
their leases under him. Suits were instituted against all the
landholders who neglected this call, and the jurors, being selected
by Cranfield, and interested in the result, uniformly gave judg-
ment against them.

Under these oppressions, the people despatched an agent, with
complaints to his majesty, against the governor. After a hearing
by the lords of trade, the iniquitous conduct of Cranfield was
represented to the king, who recalled him.

It may be proper to add, that the above controversy about the
claims of Mason continued long to disturb the peace of the
province, and was not finally terminated until the death of
Samuel Allen, in 1715, to whom the heirs of Mason had sold
their claim for seven hundred and fifty pounds: upon his demise,
no one appeared to renew the claims, and the question dropped.

49. In 1GS1, King Charles II. granted to William
Penn, son of Admiral Penn, in consideration of debts
due the latter, for services done to the crown, the territo-
ry of Pennsylvania, so named by the king after Penn
himself.

This patent encroached on the territory of Lord Baltimore in
Maryland, one whole degree, or sixty-nine miles and a half; and
on the north, nearly three hundred miles, across the whole terri-
tory conveyed to Connecticut, in 1631,* and confirmed by the
royal charter of 1662. Hence arose contentions between the
colonies of Pennsylvania and Connecticut, about boundaries,
that were not settled till a century after. Within a short time
from the date of the grant by King Charles to Penn, two other
conveyances were made to him by the Duke of York. One
was a bill of sale of New-Castle, and a territory of twelve miles
around it. The other was a bill granting a tract south of the
former, as far as Cape Henlopen. These two deeds embraced

* See Sec. 36, where the boundaries of the territory granted to Connecti-
eut we given.

76 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

the whole state of Delaware, known at that time by the name ol
the " Territories."

Having thus obtained possession of a valuable territory, and
desirous of founding a colony upon it, Penn offered the lands for
sale, at the rate of one thousand acres for twenty pounds, or at
an annual rent of one penny per acre. Many persons, chiefly
Quakers, were induced to purchase ; and in the fall of the same
year, three ships, with settlers, sailed for Pennsylvania. At the
same time, Penn addressed a letter to the Indians, residing on
the territory, assuring them of. his pacific disposition, and his
determination, should difficulties arise between them and the
emigrants, to have them settled on principles of equity.

The next year, Penn published a form of government, by which
the supreme power was lodged in a general assembly, to consist
of a governor, council, and house of delegates ; the council and
house to be chosen by the freemen ; the proprietor and govern-
or to preside, and to have a treble voice in the council, which
was to consist of seventy-two members.

It was also agreed, that every person of good moral character,
professing his faith in Christ, should be a freeman, and capable
of holding any office ; and that none who believed in one God
should be molested in his religion, or be compelled to attend or
maintain religious worship.

In October, Penn, with two thousand planters, mostly Quakers,
arrived at New-Castle, which was a part of the " Territories."
Upon this tract he found already settled about three thousand
Dutch, Swedes and Finns. He proceeded to Chester, where, in
December, he convoked an assembly ; but, so few delegates
appearing, he ordered that, instead of seventy-two, three mem-
bers only should constitute the council, and nine the house of as-
sembly. This assembly annexed the Territories to the province.

Penn now entered into a treaty with the Indians, of whom he
purchased large tracts of territory ; at the same time, he com-
menced the city of Philadelphia, which, in one year, increased
to a hundred houses and cottages.

Pennsylvania had a more rapid and prosperous settlement than
any of the other colonies. This was doubtless owing, in part, to
its healthful climate and fruitful soil ; partly to the fact, that the
great obstacles of settlement had been overcome by the other
colonies; and partly to the religious tolerance, mildness, and
equity, which characterized its laws and their administration.

In 16815, Penn convened a second assembly, which was held in
Philadelphia; and, at the request of the freemen and delegates,
granted them a second charter, by which eighteen persons were
to form the council, and thirty-six the assembly. At this time it
was ordained, " that, to prevent law-suits, three arbitrators, to be
called peace-makers, should be chosen by the county courts, to
hear and determine small differences between man and man—

SETTLEMENTS. 7/

Ifaat children should be taught some useful trade — that factors
wronging their employers should make satisfaction, and one
third over — that all causes of rudeness, cruelty and irrelio-ion
should be repressed — and that no man should be molested for hid
religious opinions." To these wholesome regulations Penn-
sylvania was indebted for her great prosperity and rapid settle-
ment.

In 1684, Penn returned to England, leaving the administration
of the government in the care of rive commissioners. Soon after,
James II. abdicated the throne. For this monarch Penn felt
a sincere regard, and continued, even after his expulsion from the
throne, to administer the colonial government in his name. This
exciting the displeasure of William, successor of James, his
friends caused Penn to be imprisoned several times ; and the
government of the colony was taken from him, and given to
Col. Fletcher, governor of New York. But, some time after, the
charges of disloyalty to William having been proved to be
unfounded, he was permitted to resume the exercise of his
rights ; wh« reupon, he appointed William Markman to be his
deputy-gove 'nor.

In L699, Penn made a second visit to Pennsylvania. Finding
discontents bad crept in, in relation to the government, he
humanely prepared a new charter, on still more liberal principles.
This was offe ed Oct. 28, 1701, and accepted on the same day, by
the people ol Pennsylvania ; but the " Territories," now Dela-
ware, declinh g, they were allowed a distinct assembly, under the
same governi r. The assembly was first convened in 1703.
(Sec. 40.)

Having thutt settled affairs, Penn again returned to England,
leaving the executive authority to be exercised by a deputy-gov-
ernor. Discontentment, however, again appeared ; and, at times,
the deputy-governors became quite obnoxious to the people. Still
the colony prof.pered : they lived in great harmony with the In-
dians, and increased in numbers and wealth.

At length, afout the commencement of the revolutionary war,
the people formed a new constitution, by which the proprietor waa
excluded from ill participation in the government ; and, by way
of discharging all quit-rents due from the inhabitants, he was
allowed 370,0(K> dollars.

50. In tho year 1684, June 18, an event highly
interesting to the colony of Massachusetts occurred in
England. Tnis was a decision, in the high court of
chancery, that she had forfeited her charter, and that
henceforth her government should be placed in the
hands of the king.
<y #

73 period li.— 1607 to 1689.

The person chiefly instrumental in bringing about this event
was Edmund Randolph, a man who had long been the enemy or
the colonies, and who, for several years, had filled the ears of the
king with complaints against them, for violating the acts of
trade.

To answer to these complaints, Massachusetts repeatedly m
curred the expense of sending agents to England, and of maintain-
ing them there ; but his majesty would accept of no conditions
short of a surrender of her charter. As she would not make thia
surrender voluntarily, it was violently wrested from her.

Before King Charles had time to adjust the affairs of
the colony, he died, and was succeeded by James II?
Soon after his accession, similar proceedings took place
against the other colonies. Rhode Island submitted,
and relinquished her charter. Plymouth sent a copy of
her charter to the king, with an humble petition, that he
would restore it. Connecticut voted an address to his
majesty, in which she prayed him to recall the writ that
had been filed against her, and requested the continu-
ance of her charter.

The petitions and remonstrances of the colonies were,
however, of no avail. Both the heart and hand of the
king were manifestly against them. After all their
hardships and dangers in settling a wilderness, they had
no other prospect before them than the destruction of
their dearest rights, and no better security of life,
liberty, and property, than the capricious will of a
tyrant.

In pursuance of this cruel policy towards the colo-
nies, two years after the charter of Massachusetts was
vacated, Kino; James commissioned and sent out Sir
Edmund Andros as governor of all New England,
Plymouth excepted.

On his arrival at Boston, Dec. 20, 1686, he entered
upon his administration ; which, at the commencement,
was comparatively auspicious. In a few months, how-
ever, the fair prospect was changed. Among other
arbitrary acts, restraints were laid upon the freedom of
the press and marriage contracts. The liberty to wor-
ship after the Congregational mode was threatened, and

SETTLEMENTS. 79

the fees of all officers of government were exorbitantly
and oppressively enhanced.

In October, Sir Edmund and suite, with a guard of about sixty
regular troops, went to Hartford, where the assembly of Con-
necticut was in session. He entered the house of the assembly,
demanded the charter of Connecticut, and declared the colonial
government to be dissolved.

Extremely reluctant to surrender the charter, the assembly
intentionally protracted its debates till evening, when the charter
was brought in, and laid on the table. — Upon a preconcerted signal,
the lights were at once extinguished, and a Capt. Wadsworth,
seizing the charter, hastened away under cover of night, and
secreted it in the hollow of an oak. The candles, which had
been extinguished, were soon relighted without disorder ; but the
charter had disappeared. Sir Edmund, however, assumed the
government, and the records of the colony were closed.

The condition of the New England colonies was now
distressing, and, as the administration of Andros was
becoming still more severe and oppressive, the future
seemed not to promise alleviation. But Providence was
invisibly preparing the way for their relief. On the oih
of Nov. 1688, William, Prince of Orange, who married
Mary, daughter of James II., landed at Torbay in Eng-
land, and, compelling James II. to leave the kingdom,
assumed the crown, being proclaimed Feb. 16th, 1689,
to the general joy of the nation.

NOTES.

51. Manners of the Colonists. In the colonies
of North America, at the close of this period, three
varieties of character might be distinguished. In Nt-w
England, the strict Puritanical notions of the peopie
wrought a correspondent austerity upon the manners of
society. Placing implicit faith in the Scriptures, they
moulded their governmciit, and shaped private character
and morals, upon a severe and literal construction of
them. They were devout, patriotic, industrious, and
public-spirited ; and though of a grave, reflecting ex-
terior, they often showed that shrewd inquisitiveness,

80 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

and keen relish of a jest, which are still characteristic
of the New Englanders.

The Jaws of the colonies throw some light on the views and
manners of the people. As examples, in 11535), the drinking of
healths was prohibited by law in Massachusetts. In 10-31, the
legislature of that colony prohibited all persons, whose " e°tate did
not exceed two hundred pounds, from wearing any gold o/ silver
lace, or any bone lace above two shillings per yard " The law
authorized the selectmen to take notice of the costliness and fashion
of the " apparel of the people, especially in the wearing of ribands
and great boots." The New Haven colony, in 103:), resolved that
they would be governed by the rules of Scripture ; and that church
members only should act in the civil affairs of the plantation.

In 1647, the colony of Connecticut expressed their disapproba-
tion of the use of tobacco, by an act of assembly, in which it was
ordered, " that no person, under the age of twenty years, nor any
other that hath already accustomed himself to the use thereof,
shall take any tobacco, until he shall have brought a certificate,
from under the hand of some, who are approved for knowledge
and skill in physic, that it is useful for him ; and also, that he hath
received a license from the court for the same. All others, who
had addicted themselves to the use of tobacco, were, by the same
eeurt, prohibited taking it in any company, or at their labors, or
on their travels, unless they were ten miles at least from any
house, or more than once a day, though not in company, on pain
of a fine of sixpence for each time ; to be proved by one substan-
tial witness. The constable in each town to make presentment of
such transgressions to the particular court, and upon conviction,
the fine to be paid without gainsaying."

In the Colony of New York, during this period, the manners of
the colonists were strictly Dutch — with no other modifications
than the privations of a new country, and the few English among
them, necessarily effected. The same steadfast pursuit of
wealth ; the same plodding industry ; the same dress, air, and
physiognomy, which are given *as characteristic of Holland, were
equally characteristic of the inhabitants of New Amsterdam.

t In Virginia, the manners of the colonists were those
of the less rigid English, rendered still more free and
voluptuous by the influence of a softer climate and a
more prolific soil.

Stith says of the first settlers of this colony, that some emigrat-
ed " to escape a worse fate at home : " others, it is said, sought to
repair fortunes by emigration, which had been ruined by excess.
Many persons, however, of high character, were among the emi-
grants and amidst the licentiousness of the Virginia colony

SETTLEMENTS. 81

ivere found, at the close of this period, the seeds of that frank-
ness, hospitality, taste, and refinement, which distinguish the peo
pie of the soutli at this day. •

Other national peculiarities might be noticed, as those of the
Finns in Delaware, those of the Quakers in Pennsylvania. &c. ;
but, at this period, they were too limited to require a distinct
notice in our work.

52. Religion. The colony of Virginia, from its
earliest existence, was exclusively devoted to the Church
of England.

For several years, its unsettled state prevented that attention to
a religious establishment, which afterwards the subject received.
At the expiration of thirteen years from the founding of the colony,
there were but eleven parishes, and five ministers : the inhabit-
ants of the colony did not, at this time, however, much exceed
two thousand persons.

In 1621, the colony received a large accession to its numbers,
and the governor and council were instructed " to take into spe-
cial regard the service of Almighty God, and the observance of
his divine laws ; and that the people should be trained up in true
religion and virtue." At the same time, the Virginia Company
ordered a hundred acres of land, in each of the buroughs, to be
laid off* for a glebe, and two hundred pounds sterling to be raised,
as a standing and certain revenue, out of .the profits of each
parish, to make a living: this stipend was thus settled — that the
minister shall receive yearly five hundred pounds of tobacco, and
sixteen barrels of corn; which were collectively estimated at two
hundred pounds sterling. In 1G42, the assembly passed a law
prohibiting all, but those who had been ordained by English
bishops, from preaching.

In 1050, during the time of Governor Berkley, the parishes of
the colony were further regulated, the religion of the church of
England was confirmed and established, and provision made for
the support of the ministers. T^e maintenance of a minister
was put at sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco, which, as valued
at that time, at ten shillings per hundred, was about' eighty
pounds sterling. But, in addition to this, he had a dwelling-house
and glebe ; also, four hundred pounds of tobacco, or fort}' shil-
lings, for a funeral sermon, and two hundred pounds of tobacco,
or twenty shillings, for performing marriage by license, -or five
shillings when the banns were proclaimed. The tobacco destined
for the minister was brought to him well packed in hogsheads,
prepared for shipping. To raise this crop, twelve negroes were
necessary.

The special object of the New England planters, in settling the
country, was the enjoyment of their religious opinions, and the

82 period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

free exercise of religious worship, without molestation. Early
attention was, therefore, paid to the gathering of churches, and
the regulation of religion. They were Calvinists in doctrine,
and Congregational in discipline.

. Each church maintained its right to govern itself. They held
to the validity of Presbyterian ordination, and the expediency of
synods on great occasions. From the commencement, they used
ecclesiastical councils, convoked by particular churches, for
advice, but not for the judicial determination of controversies.

In each of the churches, there was a pastor, teacher, ruling
elder, and deacons. The pastor's office consisted principally in
exhortation : upon the teacher devolved the business of explain-
ing and defending the doctrines of Christianity. The business of
the ruling elder was to assist the pastor in the government of the
church.

Early provision was made for the support of the ministry. On
the arrival of the col/mists of Massachusetts Bay, at Charlestown,
before landing, a court of assistants was held ; and the first question
proposed was, How shall the ministers be maintained ? The
court ordered that houses be built, and salaries be raised for them,
at the public charge. Their two ministers, Mr. Phillips and Mr.
Wilson, were granted a salary — the former thirty pounds per
annum, and the latter twenty pounds, until the arrival of his wife.

After the settlement of the several colonies, all persons were
obliged by law to contribute to the support of the church. Spe-
cial care was taken that all persons should attend public .worship.
In Connecticut, the law obliged them to be present on the Lord's
day — on all days of public fasting and thanksgiving, appointed by
civil authority — on penalty of five shillings for every instance of
neglect.

By the year 1642. twenty-two years from the landing of the
pilgrims at Plymouth, there had been settled in New England,
seventy-seven ministers, who were driven from the parent coun-
try ; fifty towns and villages had been planted, and thirty or forty
churches gathered.

In IG'57, the first synod convened in America, sat at Newtown,
Massachusetts, and was composed of all the teaching elders in the
country', and messengers of the several churches. Magistrates
also were present, and spoke as they thought fit. The object of
calling this synod was to inquire into the opinions of one Ann
Hutchinson, a very extraordinary woman, who held public lec-
tures in Boston, and taught doctrines considered heretical. The
whole colony was agitated and divided into parties. The synod,
after a session of three weeks, condemned eighty-two erroneous
opinions, which had become disseminated in New England.

The Dutch Reformed Church was introduced into
New York with the first settlers, and was generally
embraced by the Dutch population of that colony.

SETTLEMENTS. 83

The Roman Catholics first came to America in 1632:
ihey settled in Maryland, and now constitute a respecta-
ble and numerous portion of the inhabitants of tha*
state.

The first Baptist church in America was formed at
Providence, in 1639, under the celebrated Roger Wil-
liams. Their sentiments spreading into Massachusetts,
in 1651, the general court passed a law against them,
inflicting banishment for persisting in the promulgation
of their doctrines.

In 1656, the Quakers making their appearance in
Massachusetts, the legislature of that colony passed
severe laws against them.

No master of a vessel was allowed to bring any one of this sect
into its jurisdiction, on penalty of one hundred pounds. Other,
still severer penalties were inflicted upon them in 1C57, such as
cutting their ears, and boring their tongues with a hot iron, &c.
They were at length banished on pain of death, and, for refusing
to go, were executed in 1659.

Without intending to justify these severities toward the Bap-
tists, Quakers, and other sectaries, it is still proper to state, as
some apology for them, that the conduct of the leaders of these
sects was often calculated, and no doubt designed, to provoke
persecution. They sought improper occasions to inculcate their
peculiar tenets, departed unnecessarily from the decencies of
social intercourse, and rudely inveighed against established and
cherished opinions. In this way, the peace of the colonies was
disturbed, and that unanimity of religious sentiment, which had
hitherto existed, was broken. Our forefathers sought to avert
these evils by the arm of civil power ; not yet having learnt that
persecution is a ready way to propagate the sentiments of the
persecuted.

In the year 1646, a synod met at Cambridge, which, by
adjournment, protracted its session to 1643, when it dissolved
This synod composed and adopted the " Cambridge Platform,'
and recommended it, together with the Westminster Confession
of Faith, to the general court and to the churches. In this synoc
were present the ministers and churches of Connecticut and
New Haven, who united in the form of discipline which it rec-
ommended. This, in connection with the ecclesiastical laws, waa
the religious constitution of Connecticut, until the compilation of
the Saybrook Platform, a period of about sixty years.

53. Trade and Commerce. The colonies, during
this period, had little other trade than with England,

84 period ii. — 1607 to 1689.

though the West India trade had begun, and there wag
some commerce with Canada, and a few ports on the
European continent. The colonies imported from Eng-
land all their merchandise ; and exported thither to-
bacco, peltry, and at length some beef, pork, grain, and
fish. The importations from England, however, much
exceeded the exports thither.

During the first thirty* years of the colony of Virginia, their
exports were confined to tobacco. But the price of it fell, at
length, from three shillings and sixpence per pound, to twenty
shillings per hundred, in consequence of which, a trade was
opened with the frontier Indians and the Five Nations. The
skins of the deer, elk, and buffalo, and the furs of the otter, hare,
fox, muskrat, and beaver, were procured for rum, hatchets,
blankets, &c. These skins and furs were exported to Eng-
land. English grain and Indian corn were also exported to a
considerable extent. Although the Virginians owned a few ves-
sels, the greater part of the trade was carried on by English ves-
sels, during this period. They brought to the colony English
manufactures, and tock tobacco, furs, skins, grain, tar, pitch, &c,
in return. The Virginians also carried on some trade with
Canada.

The principal article of export from New England, during this
period, was peltry, which was procured of the Indians, for goods
of small value. In 1639, a fishing trade was begun at Cape
Anne, and in 1641, three hundred thousand codfish were sent to
market.

The first vessel directly from the West Indies was a Dutch
ship of one hundred and sixty tons, which arrived at Marblehead,
1635. The first American vessel that made a voyage to the West
Indies was a pinnace of thirty tons, in 1636. The ship Desire,
of Salem, made a voyage, in 1638, to New Providence and Tor-
tuga, and returned laden with cotton, tobacco, salt, and negroes.
This was the first introduction of African slaves into New Eng-
land. The first importation of indigo and sugar from the West
Indies, mentioned in our accounts, was made in 1639. In 1642,
a Dutch ship exchanged a cargo of salt for plank and pipe-staves,
the first exports of lumber from New England. The next year,
eleven ships sailed for the West Indies with lumber.

In 1678, the annual exports of the New York colony, besidea
beef, pork, tobacco, and peltry, were about sixty thousand bush-
els of wheat. About ten or fifteen vessels, on an average, of
one hundred tons, English and colonial, traded to this colony
in a year.

54. Agriculture. Early attention was paid to agri-
culture. The first business of the settlers was to clear

SETTLEMENTS. 85

the forests, and supply themselves with food from the
soil. But the fertility of the earth taught them soon to
look to agriculture as a source of wealth, as well as of
subsistence. It therefore became the leading object ol
industry in the colonies.

The method adopted by the first settlers to clear the land, was
slow and laborious, compared with the present modes. They
used generally to cut down the trees, and dig up the stumps, be
fore tillage.

Tobacco was early cultivated in Virginia, and soon began to
be exported. The year after the colony landed, the people
gathered corn of their own planting, the seed of which they re-
ceived of the Indians. Vineyards were attempted, and experienced
vine-dressers were sent over for the purpose of attending them.
Flax, hemp, barley, &c, were cultivated to a considerable extent
Rye was first raised in Massachusetts in 1633. Ploughs were
early introduced into the country.

Neat cattle were first introduced into New England by Mr.
Winslow, in 1624. In 1629, one hundred and forty head of cat-
tle, with horses, sheep, and goats, were imported into Massachu-
setts Bay. In a few years, they became so numerous as to supply
all the wants of the inhabitants. In 1623, the cattle in Virginia
had increased to above one thousand head.

New York raised considerable beef and pork for exportation,
and in 1678, the're were exported from the province sixty thousand
bushels of wheat.

55. Arts and Manufactures. The colonists, dur-
ing this period, being chiefly occupied in gaining a sub-
sistence, and in protecting themselves against their ene-
mies, had occasion for few articles beyond the necessa-
ries and comforts of life. Arts and manufactures, there-
fore, received but little encouragement, beyond the
construction of such articles, and even those were
principally imported.

In 1620, one hundred and fifty persons arrived in Virginia,
from England, for the purpose of manufacturing silk, iron, pot-
ash, tar, pitch, glass, salt, &c. ; but they did not succeed. In
1673, Chalmers says of New England, " There be five iron works
which cast no guns — no house in New England has above twen-
ty rooms — not twenty in Boston have ten rooms each — a dancing
school was set up here, but put down — a fencing school is al-
lowed. There be no musicians by trade. All cordage, sail-cloth
and mats, come from England — no cloth made there worth four shil-
lings per yard — nc alum, no copperas.no salt, made by their sun "

period ii.— 1607 to 1689.

The first buildings of the settlers were made of logs, and thatched,
or were built of stone. Brick and framed houses were soon built
in the larger towns, and afterwards in the villages. The frames
and brick were, however, in some instances, imported. The first
mill in New England was a wind-mill, near Watertown ; but it
was taken down in lb'32, and placed in the vicinity of Boston.
Water-mills began to be erected the next year. The first attempt
to build water-craft, in New England, was at Plymouth, in 1020. A
house-carpenter sawed their largest boat into two parts, and length-
ened it five or six feet, built a deck, and rigged it into a conve-
nient vessel, which did service for seven years. The first vessel
built in Massachusetts was a bark, in 1(331, called The Blessing
of the Bay. In 1633, a ship of sixty tons was built at Medford.
In 1636, one of one hundred and twenty tons was built at Mar-
blehead. In 1641, a ship of three hundred tons was launched at
Salem, and one of one hundred and sixty tons at Boston. From
this time, ship-building rapidly extended in the northern colonies.

The first printing in New England was executed in 1639, by
one Day. The proprietor of the press was a clergyman, by the
name of Glover, who died on his passage to America. The first
article printed was the Freeman's Oath, the second an almanac,
and the third an edition of the Psalms. No other printing-
press was established in America during this period. John
Elliot, the celebrated missionary, having translated the Bible into
the Indian language, had it printed at Cambridge, in 1664.

The mode of travelling considerable distances was on foot, or
on horseback, there being no carriages for that purpose, and the
roads from one village to another being only narrow foot-paths,
through forests.

56. Population. We may estimate the population
of the English American colonies, at the close of this
period, at about 200,000.

It is impossible to ascertain very exactly the population of the
American colonies at the close of this period. The estimates
made by writers are vague and often contradictory. The estimate
of Dr. Humphries in 1701, which seems as well entitled to credit
as any other, is as follows : —

Souls.

Massachusetts 70,000

Connecticut 30,000

Rhode Island 10,000

New Hampshire 10,000

New England 120,000

Mid. and S. Colonies 142,000

Total 262,000

Souls.

New York 30,000

Jerseys 15,00C

Pennsylvania 20,000

Marvland 25,000

Virginia 40,000

North Carolina 5,000

South Carolina 7,000

142,000

SETTLEMENTS. 87

Making a deduction from this account, so as to bring the esti«
mate to the close of our period, we state the whole white popu-
lation of the English American colonies, in 1689, at about two
hundred thousand.

57. Education. In New England, schools were
founded, at the outset of the colonies, for the education
of all classes : in the southern colonies, provisions for
the education of the higher classes only were attempted
during this period.

Scarcely had the American colonists opened the forests, and
constructed habitations, before they directed their attention to
the object of education.

Previously to 1619, the king of England authorized the col-
lection of moneys throughout the kingdom, to erect a college in
Virginia, for the education of Indian children : one thousand
five hundred pound* were collected for this purpose, and Henrico
was selected as a suitable place for the seminary. The same
year, the Virginia company granted ten thousand acres of land
for the projected university. This donation, while it embraced
the original object, was intended also for the foundation of a
seminary of learning for English scholars.

In addition to a college, the colonists, in 1621, instituted a
school at Charles' City for the benefit of all the colony, which
they called the East India School. For the maintenance of the
master and usher, one thousand acres of land were appropriated,
with five servants and an overseer. From this school, pupils
were to be transferred to the college at Henrico, when the
latter should be sufficiently endowed. These establishments
in Virginia, however, failed of success, and, in 1692, their funds
were given to William and Mary's college, which we shall no-
tice hereafter.

Still more attentive to education were the northern colonies.
In 1630, a general court of Massachusetts Bay appropriated the
sum of four hundred pounds towards the commencement of a
college. In 1637, the college was located at Newtown, which,
not long after, was called Cambridge, in memory of Cambridge,
in England, where many of the colonists had received their edu-
cation. Mr. John Harvard, a worthy minister, dying at Charles-
town about this time, bequeathed nearly eight hundred pounds
to the college, in consideration of which legacy it was called
after him. In 1642 was held the first commencement, at which
nine were graduated.

To this institution the plantations of Connecticut and New
Haven, so long as they remained unable to support a similar one
at home, contributed funds from the public purse ; and sent to
it such of their youth as they wished to be educated. Private

88 period li.— 1607 to 1689.

subscriptions were also made from the United Colonies, to aid
the institution.

Great attention was also paid by all the colonies to the sub-
ject of common schools. As a specimen of the arrangements
common to the New England colonies, we may notice those of
Connecticut. By her first code, in 1(539, only six years from the
time the first house was erected within the colony, it was or-
dered that every totvn, consisting of fifty families, should main-
tain a good school, in which reading and writing should be well
taught; and that in every county town a good grammar school
should be instituted. Large tracts of land were appropriated by
the legislature as a permanent support of these schools, and the
selectmen of every town were required to see that all heads of
families instructed their children and servants to read the Eng
lish tongue well.

REFLECTIONS. •

58. At the commencement of this period, our history present
ed us with a continent, over whose surface an interminable wil
derness had for ages cast its deep and solemn shade. If we
approach the shore, and look through the gloom that gathers
over it, the scenes which strike the eye are Indians at their war
dance, or, perhaps, flames curling round some expiring captive
or wild beasts mangling their prey.

Passing from this point of time to the close of our period, a
space of eighty-two years, the prospect is greatly changed. We
now see smiling fields and cheerful villages, in the place of dis-
mal forests ; instead of beasts of prey, we see grazing herds ;
instead of the kindling fagot, we witness the worship of Jesus
Christ ; and instead of the appalling war-whoop, we listen to the
grateful songs of David. In the beautiful words of Scripture,
the wilderness has begun to blossom as the rose, and the desert is
becoming vocal with the praises of God.

But how isMt that a change so wonderful has been brought to
pass ? We have indeed seen the hardy spirit of enterprise leav-
ing the luxuries of Europe, and plunging into the forests of
America. But we have also seen our forefathers struggling with
difficulties, and often trembling on the very brink of ruin. We
have seen them amidst Indian war, desolating famine and pesti-
lence ; and we have wondered, after the storm has passed, to
see them rise with renovated strength, and seem to gather
power and advantage from circumstances calculated to over-
whelm them.

Admitting, then, the extraordinary energy, wisdom, enterprise,
and hardihood, of the first settlers of America, still we are driven
xo the admission of a benign Providence working in their favor

SETTLEMENTS. 89

and mysteriously establishing their strength and security, by ex-
ercising them for years with danger, trial, and misfortune.

Nor are these the only considerations which excite our admi-
ration in regard to the rirst settlers of North .Ame~ica Although,
in the eloquent words of Mr. Walsh, ;i It was thsir teculiar lot,
at one and the same time, to clear and cultivate a wilderness;
to erect habitations and procure sustenance ; to struggle with a
new and rigorous climate ; to bear up against all the bitter rec-
ollections inseparable from distant and lonely exile ; to defend
their liberties from the jealous tyranny and bigotry of the mother
country ; to be perpetually assailed by a savage foe, the most subtle
and the most formidable of any people on the face of the earth:"
still, they looked forward to the welfare of future generations ;
laid broad and deep foundations for religious institutions ; made
the most careful provisions for learning ; and enacted wholesome
laws, the benefit of which is distinctly felt to this day.

It may be further remarked, that history shows the influence
of the manners of a people upon their government, and the
reciprocal influence of government upon the manners of a
people. The history of this period furnishes striking examples
of this. In Virginia, the free and licentious manners of society
produce a government unsteady and capricious. This govern-
ment reacts upon their manners, and aids rather than checks
their licentiousness. On the contrary, in New England, the
severe Puritanical manners of the people produce a rigid, ener-
getic government, and the government returns its Puritanical
influence back upon the manners of the people.

UJNITED STATES.

PERIOD III.

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE WARS OF KING WILLIAM,

QUEEN ANNE, AND GEORGE II.

Extending from the Accession of William and Mary to
the Throne of England, 1689, to the Declaration of
the War by England against France, 1756, called
" the French and Indian War."

Sec. 1. The news of William's accession to the throne
of England excited great joy throughout the colonies.
Under the sudden impulse of their feelings, the inhab-
itants of Boston imprisoned Sir Edmund Andros, with
about fifty of his associates, until they were ordered to
England, to answer for maladministration. Connecti
cut and Rhode Island resumed their charters, and were
permitted by his majesty to reestablish their former gov-
ernments. Massachusetts soon after obtained a new
charter, which, in some respects, was less favorable to
the colony, but, in others, more so, than its former one,

Andros had formerly been governor of New York,
under the Duke of York, in which province his ad-
ministration had been distinguished for measures both
arbitrary and severe. Subsequent governors, under the
duke, and after he came to the throne, had generally pur-
sued a similar course. The discontents of the people
had been gradually increasing, and they were ready for
revolution, when the above intelligence of the proceed-
ings at Boston arrived. A revolution soon commenced.

WARS OP WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 91

and, although attended by unhappy events, issued in the
restoration of the rights of the people, and the formation
of a constitution, which laid the foundation of their pro-
vincial code.

From the reduction of New York, in 1664, to 16S3, the people
had no share in the government. In 1681, the council court of
assizes, and corporation, had solicited the Duke of York to per-
mit the people to choose their own rulers. Accordingly, the next
year, Thomas Dongan, a papist, was appointed governor, with
instructions to call an assembly, to consist of a council of ten,
and of eighteen representatives, elected by the freeholders.

On the accession of the Duke of York to the throne, under
the title of James II., he refused to confirm to the people the
privileges granted them while he was duke. No assembly was
permitted to be convened ; printing-presses were prohibited, and
the more important provincial offices were conferred on papists.

Such was the state of things when intelligence of the
seizure of Andros arrived. This gave a spring to the general
dissatisfaction, which burst forth into open resistance to the ex-
isting administration.

One Jacob Leisler, with several others, immediately took pos-
session of the fort. Gov. Dongan had just embarked for Eng-
land, leaving the administration of the government, during his
absence, to Charles Nicholson, at that time his deputy. Nichol-
son and his officers made what opposition to Leisler they were
ible ; but, he having been joined by six militia captains, and four
hundred and seventy men, Nicholson absconded. Upon this,
Leisler assumed the supreme command.

This assumption of Leisler was far from being pleasant to the
louncil and magistrates, at the head of whom were Col. Bayardand
She mayor. Finding it impossiole, however, to succeed against
-Leisler in New York, they retired to Albany, and there employed
iheir influence to foment opposition. Both Leisler, in New York,
ind the people at Albany, held their respective garrisons in the
name of William and Mary ; but neither would submit to the
authority of the other.

While affairs were in this posture, a letter from the Lords Car-
snathen and Halifax arrived, directed ;: To Francis Nicholson,
Esq., or, in his absence, to such as, for the time being, take care
for preserving the peace and administering the laws," &c. Ac-
companying this letter was another of a subsequent date, vest-
ing Nicholson with the chief command.

As Nicholson had absconded, Leisler construed the letter as
directed to himself, and from that time assumed the title and
authority of lieutenant-governor. The southern part of New
York generally submitted to him ; but Albany refusing gubjec

92 period in.— 16S9 to 175G.

tion, Milborn, his son-in-law, was sent to reduce them. In his
first attempt he failed ; but during the ensuing spring, 1690, he
took possession of the fort, and the inhabitants submitted.

On the li>th of March. 1691, Col. Sloughter arrived at New
York, in the capacity of the king's governor. Nicholson and
Bayard, who had been imprisoned by Leisler, were released.
The latter was obliged to abandon the fort, and, with Milborn,
his son-in-law, was apprehended, tried for high treason, and
condemned. Their immediate execution was urged by the peo-
ple ; but the governor, fearful of consequences, chose to defer it.
To effect their purpose, an invitation was given him by the citi-
zens to a sumptuous feast, and, while his reason was drowned
in intoxication, a warrant for their execution was presented to
him and signed. Before he recovered his senses, the prisoners
were no more.

Measures so violent greatly agitated the existing parties ; but,
in the end, the revolution which had taken place, restored the
rights of Englishmen to the colony. Gov. Sloughter convoked
an assembly, which formed a constitution. This, among other
provisions, secured trials by jury, freedom from taxation, except
by the consent of the assembly, and toleration to all denomina-
tions of Christians, excepting Roman Catholics.

It may be added, in this place, that the civil history of New
York, from this period to the French war, presents few events
of special interest to the young. The governors, who succeeded
Sloughter. during the above interval, were Fletcher, 1682 ; the
Earl of Bellamont, 16!>8 ; Lord Cornbury. 1702 ; Hunter, 171U;
Burnet, 1720 ; Montgomery, 1731 ; Crosby, 1732: Clark. 1736;
George Clinton. 1743. In general, these governors were strong-
ly attached to the interests of the crown, and often apparently
more solicitous to subserve their own selfish purposes than to
advance the permanent welfare of the colony. Hence collis-
ions frequently arose between them and the colonial assemblies,
which disturbed the general peace, and retarded the prosperity
of the colony.

2. 1690. While the northern colonies were troubled
as noticed in the preceding section, those of the Caro-
linas were in a similar state of dissension and distress.
To allay these, in the northern colony, Seth Sothel was
appointed chief magistrate ; but, proving corrupt in his
administration, he was banished by the assembly, in
1690; immediately after which, he repaired to Charles-
ton, and usurped the government of the southern colony.
Added lo this, a quarrel arose, between the proprietors
and the English inhabitants, in relation to a body of

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 93

French Protestants, which had planted themselves in the
county of Craven — the proprietors demanding for them
the privilege of electing representatives, which was stren-
uously refused by the English Episcopalians. Such be-
ing the general turbulence and disorder of the times,
Sir John Archdale, one of the proprietors, was sent over,
in 1695, as governor of both the Carolinas, with full
powers to redress grievances, and to adjust, if possible,
existing difficulties. These objects, by his singular wis-
dom and address, he in a measure accomplished.

In respect to the deep-rooted prejudices existing against the
Above French Protestants, Archdale found it to be the part of wis-
dom to leave them to be softened and removed by time. This a
few years effected. The amiable deportment of the refugees so won
upon the English, that they were cheerfully admitted to all the
rights of citizens and freemen.

At a subsequent date, the repose of the southern colony was
grealb disturbed by the passage of a law by the general assem-
bly, establishing the Episcopal religion, and excluding dissenters
from a seat in the assembly. This gave birth to bitter animosities,
and as bitter contentions. Complaints being made to Queen Anne,
then on the throne, the law was declared to be void. This agitat-
ing question being thus put at rest, the colony again enjoyed the
blessings of domestic quiet. (See Sec. 17, 20.)

3. About this period, 1692, commenced in Dan vers,
then a part of Salem, Massachusetts, a singular infatu-
ation on the supposed prevalence of witchcraft. In a
short time, this infatuation pervaded several parts of
New England, producing, in its progress, the greatest
distress in private families, and disorder and tumult
throughout the country.

The first suspicion of witchcraft in New England, and in the
United States, began at Springfield, Massachusetts, as early as
lb4.">. Several persons, about that time, were accused, tried and
executed in Massachusetts; one at Charlestown. one at Dorches-
ter, one at Cambridge, and one at Boston. For almost thirty
years afterwards, the subject rested. But, in lli^Tor 1(588, it was
revived in Boston ; four of the children of John Goodwin uniting
in accusing a poor Irish woman with bewitching them. Unhap-
pily, the accusation was regarded with attention, and the woman
was tried and executed.

Near the close of February, 1692, the subject was again re«

94 period in. — 1689 to 1756.

vived, in consequence of several children in Danvers, Salem,
beginning to act in a peculiar and unaccountable manner. Their
strange conduct continuing for several days, their friends betook
themselves to fasting and prayer. During religious exercises,
it was found that the children were generally decent and still ;
but after service was ended, they renewed their former inexpli-
cable conduct. This was deemed sufficient evidence, that they
were laboring under the influence of witchcraft.

At the expiration of some days, the children began to accuse
several persons in the neighborhood of bewitching them. Un-
fortunately, they were credited, and the suspected authors of the
spell were seized and imprisoned.

From this date, the awful mania rapidly spread into the neigh-
boring country, and soon appeared in various parts of Essex,
Middlesex, and Suffolk. Persons at Andover, Ipswich, Glouces-
ter, Boston, and several other places, were accused by their
neighbors and others.

For some time, the victims were selected only from the lower
classes. But, at length, the accusations fell upon persons of the
most respectable rank. In August, Mr. George Boroughs, some
time minister in Salem, was accused, brought to trial, and con-
demned. Accusations were also brought against Mr. English, a
respectable merchant in Salem, and his wife ; against Messrs.
Dudley and John Bradstreet, sons of the then late Governor
Bradstreet ; against the wife of Mr. Hale, and the lady of Sir
William Phipps.

The evil had now become awfully alarming. One man, named
Giles Corey, had been pressed to death for refusing to put him-
self on a trial by jury ; and nineteen persons had been executed,
more than one third of whom were members of the church
One hundred and fifty were in prison, and two hundred were
accused.

At length, the inquiry was anxiously suggested, Where will
this accumulating mischief and misery end ? A conviction be-
gan to spread, that the proceedings had been rash and indefensi-
ble. A special court was held on the subject, and fifty, who were
brought to trial, were acquitted, excepting three, who were after-
wards reprieved by the governor. These events were followed
by a general release of those who had been imprisoned. " Thus
the cloud," says the late President Dwight, '; which had so long
hung over the colony, slowly and sullenly retired ; and, like the
darkness of Egypt, was, to the great joy of the distressed in-
habitants, succeeded by serenity and sunshine."

We, who live to look back upon this scene, are wont to con-
template, with wonder, the seeming madness and infatuation,
not of the weak, illiterate, and unprincipled, but of men of
sense, education, and fervent piety. Let us consider, however,
that, at this period, the actual existence of witchcraft was takeu

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 95

for granted, and that doubts respecting it were deemed little less
than heresy. The learned Baxter, who lived at this time in
England, where the same notions on this subject prevailed, pro-
nounced the disbeliever in witchcraft, an " obdurate Sadducee ;"
and Sir Matthew Hale, one of the brightest ornaments of the
English bench, repeatedly tried and condemned those as cnm
inals who were accused of witchcraft.

In conclusion, it may be remarked, that no people on earth are
note more enlightened on this subject than are the people of
America. Nothing of a similar kind has since existed, and
probably never will exist. Stories of wonder, founded upon an-
cient tradition, or upon a midnight adventure, sometimes awe
the village circle on a winter's night; but the 'succeeding day
chases away every ghost, and lulls every fear. It becomes the
present generation to advert with gratitude to their freedom
from those delusions which distressed and agitated their ancestors,
rather than to bestow invectives upon them, since they could
plead, in palliation of their error, the spirit of the age in which
they lived. *

4. Scarcely were the colonies relieved from the op-
pression of King James, before they were visited with
troubles of a nature still more distressing. The revolu-
tion, which followed the accession of William and Mary,
had indeed restored their liberties, but it involved them
in a war both with the French and Indians, which con-
tinued from 1690 to the peace of Ryswick, in 1697,
commonly called " King William's War."

King James, on leaving England, fled to France. Louis XIV.,
king of France, attempting to support him, kindled the flame of
war between his own country and England. The subjects of
Louis, in Canada, of course, directed their arms against the colo-
nies of New England and New York, and instigated the Indians
to join them in their hostilities.

The governor of Canada, at this time, was Count
Frontenac, a brave and enterprising officer. Inflamed
with the resentment which had kindled in the bosom of
his master, he fitted out three expeditions, in the dead
of winter, against the American colonies — one against
New York, a second against New Hampshire, and a
third against the Province of Maine. Each of these
parties, in the execution of their orders, marked their
progress with plunder, fire, and death.

96 period in. — 1689 to 1756.

The party destined against New York, consisting of about three
hundred men, fell upon Schenectady, a village on the Mohawk,
in February. The season was cold, and the snow so deep, that
it was deemed impossible for an enemy to approach. The attack
was made in the dead of the night, while the inhabitants were in a
profound sleep. Not a sentinel was awake to announce the ap-
proaching danger. Care had been taken, by a division of the
enemy, to attack almost every house in the same moment. When
the preparations were ready, on a preconcerted signal, the ap-
palling war-whoop was begun ; houses were broken open and
set on fire ; men and women were dragged from their beds, and,
with their sleeping infants, were inhumanly murdered. Sixty
persons perished in the massacre, thirty were made prisoners,
while the rest of the inhabitants, mostly naked, fled through a
deep snow, either suffering extremely, or perishing in the cold.

The second party, directing their course to New Hampshire,
burned Salmon Falls, killing thirty of the bravest men, and car-
rying fifty-four of the inhabitants into a miserable captivity.

The third party, proceeding from Quebec^estroyed the set-
tlement of Casco, in Maine, and killed and captured one hun-
dred people.

5. Roused by these proceedings of the French, the
colony of Massachusetts resolved to attack the enemy
in turn. Accordingly, an expedition, consisting of seven
vessels and eight hundred men, under command of Sir
William Phipps, sailed for the reduction of Port Royal,
in Nova Scotia, which was easily and speedily effected.

This was soon followed by a second expedition, under
the same commander, by the colonies of New York,
Connecticut, and Massachusetts, united, for the reduc-
tion of Montreal and Quebec. A combination of un-
fortunate circumstances, however, defeated the design,
and the expedition, after encountering numerous disas-
ters, returned. ;

The plan was, for the troops of New York and Connecticut,
consisting of about two thousand, to penetrate into Canada, by
Lake Champlain, and to attack Montreal, at the same time that
the naval armament, consisting of between thirty and forty ves-
sels, with a similar number of men, should invest Quebec. The
troops destined for Montreal, not being supplied either with boata
or provisions, sufficient for crossing the lake, were obliged to re-
turn. The naval expedition did not reach Quebec until October.
After spending several days in consultation, the landing of the
troops was effected, and they began their march for the town

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 97

At the same time, the ships were drawn up ; but the attack, both
by land and water, was alilfe unsuccessful. The troops were
soon after re-embarked ; and the weather, proving tempestuous,
scattered the fleet, and terminated the expedition.

The success of the expedition had been so confidently antici-
pated, that provision had not been made for the payment of the
troops: there was danger, therefore, of a mutiny. In this ex-
tremity, Massachusetts issued bills of credit, as a substitute for
money ; the first emission of the kind in the American colonies.

0. The failure of the expedition to Quebec was hum-
bling to New England, and productive of other unhappy
consequences. The Indian tribes, Mohawks, Gneidas,
Senecas, Onondagas, and Delawares, called the Five Na-
tions, settled along the banks of the Susquehannah, and
in the adjacent country, who were in alliance with Great
Britain, and had long been a safeguard to the colonies
against the French, became dissatisfied. They blamed
the English for their inactivity, and manifested a dispo-
sition to make peace with the French.

To restore the confidence of the Indian allies, Major Peter
Schuyler, the next year, 1691, at the head of three hundred Eng-
lish soldiers, and as many Mohawk Indians, made an attack on
the French settlements north of Lake Champlain. De Callieres,
governor of Montreal, was waiting to oppose him. After seve-
ral irregular, but successful conflicts, Schuyler made good his
retreat, having killed thirteen officers and three hundred men.

New York found great security against the encroachments of
the French, in the Five Nations, who now carried on a vigorous
war, along the river St. Lawrence, from Montreal to Quebec.

But the eastern portion of the country; particularly New Hamp-
shire, suffered exceedingly; the storm falling with the greatest
severity upon them. Both Connecticut and Massachusetts raised
troops for their defence ; but such was the danger and distress
of the colony of New Hampshire, that the inhabitants were upon
the point of abandoning the province.

The winter of 1C9G was unusually severe. Never had the
sountry sustained such losses in commerce ; nor had provisions,
in any period of the war, been more scarce, or borne a higher
price.

7, In the midst of these distresses, the country was

threatened with a blow, which it seemed impossible that

•t should sustain. The Marquis Nesmond, an officer

of high reputation, was despatched from France, with

98 period in. — 1689 to 1756. •

ten ships of the line, a galliot, and two frigates. Count
Frontenac, from Canada, was expected to join him at
Penobscot, with one thousand five hundred men. With
this force, they were to make a descent on Boston ; to
range the coast of Newfoundland, and burn the ship-
ping which should fall in their way. To finish their
work of destruction, they were to take New York,
whence the troops, under Frontenac, were to return to
Canada, through the country, wasting and destroying
the regions through which they should pass. But De
Nesmond sailed too late for the accomplishment of his
purpose. On his arrival on the coast, not being able to
join Frontenac in season, the expedition failed, and the
colonies were saved. At length, December 10, 1697, a
treaty was concluded between France and England, at
Ryswick, in Germany, by which it was agreed, in gen-
eral terms, that a mutual restitution should be made of
all the countries, forts, and colonies, taken by each party
during the war.

King William's war, which was thus brought to a close, had
been marked by atrocities, on the part of the French and Indians,
until then unknown in the history of the colonies. Infants,
when they became troublesome, were despatched by being dashed
against a stone or tree ; or, to add to the anguish of a mother,
her babe was sometimes lacerated with a scourge, or nearly stran-
gled under water, and then presented to her to quiet. If unable
soon to succeed in this, it was too effectually quieted by the hatch-
et, or left behind to become the prey of prowling beasts. Some
of the captives were roasted alive ; others received deep wounds
in the fleshy parts of their bodies, into which sticks on fire were
thrust, until, tormented out of life, they expired.

The details of individual sufferings, which occurred during this
war, were they faithfully recorded, would excite the sympathies
of the most unfeeling bosom. One instance only can we relate.

Jn an attack, by a body of Indians, on Haverhill, Massachu-
setts, in the winter of 1G97, the concluding year of the war, a
party of the assailants, burning with savage animosity, approached
the house of a Mr. Dustan.i Upon the first alarm, he flew from
a neighboring field to his family, with the hope of hurrying them
to a place of safety. Seven of his children he directed to flc'e,
while he himself went to assist his wife, who was confined to the
bed with an infant a week old. But before she could leave her
bed, the savages arrived.

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 99

In despair of rendering her assistance, Mr. Dustan flew to the
door, mounted his horse, and determined, in his own mind, to
snatch up and save the child which he loved the best. He fol-
lowed in pursuit of his little flock ; but, upon coming up to
them, he found it impossible to make a selection. The eye of the
parent could see no one of the number that he could abandon to
the knife of the savage. He determined, therefore, to meet his
fate with them ; to defend and save them from their pursuers, or
die by their side.

A body of Indians soon came up with him, and, from short dis-
tances, fired upon him and his little company. For more than a
mile, he continued to retreat, placing himself between his chil-
dren and the fire of the savages, and returning their shots with
great spirit and success. At length, he saw them all safely
lodged from their bloody pursuers, in a distant house. .

It is not easy to find a nobler instance of fortitude and courage,
inspired by affection, than is exhibited in this instance. Let us
ever cultivate the influence of those ties of kindred, which are
capable of giving so generous and elevated a direction to our
actions.

As Mr. Dustan quitted his house, a party of Indians entered it.
Mrs. Dustan was in bed; but they ordered her to rise, and, before
she could completely dress herself, obliged her and her nurse, a
Mrs. Tefl", wiio had vainly endeavored to escape with the infant,
to quit the house, which they plundered and set on fire.

In these distressing circumstances, Mrs. Dustan began her
march, with other captives, into the wilderness. The air was
keen, and their path led alternately through snow and deep mud ;
and her savage conductors delighted rather in the infliction of
torment than the alleviation of distress.

The company had proceeded but a short distance, when an In-
dian, thinking the infant an incumbrance, took it from the nurse's
arms, and violently terminated its life. Such of the other cap-
tives as began to be weary, and incapable of proceeding, the In
dians killed with their tomahawks. Feeble as Mrs. Dustan was,
both she and her nurse sustained, with wonderful energy, the
fatigue and misery attending a journey of one hundred anc fifty
miles.

On their arrival at the place of their destination, they found
the wigwam of the savage, who claimed them as his personal
property, to "be inhabited by twelve Indians. In the ensuing
April, this family set out, with their captives, for an Indian settle-
ment still more remote. The captives were informed that, on
their arrival at the settlement, they must submit to be stripped,
scourged, and run the gantlet, between two files of Indians.
This information carried distress to the minds of the captive
women, and led them promptly to devise some means of escape.

Early in the norning of the 31st, Mrs Dustan, awaking her

100 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

nurse and another fellow-prisoner, they despatched ten of the
twelve Indians while asleep. The other two escaped. The
women then pursued their difficult and toilsome journey through
the wilderness, and at length arrived in safety at Haverhill
Subsequently, they visited Boston, and received, at the hand of
the general court, a handsome consideration for their extraordi
nary sufferings and heroic conduct.

8. Scarcely had the colonies recovered from the
wounds and impoverishment of King William's war
which ended in 1697, before they were again involved
in the horrors of another war with the French, Indians,
and Spaniards, commonly called " Queen Anne's War,"
which continued from 1702 to the peace of Utrecht
March 31st, 1713.

By the treaty of Ryswick, (Sec. 7.) it was in general terms
agreed, that France and England should mutually restore to each
other all conquests made during the war. But the rights and
pretensions of either monarch to certain places in Hudson's Bay,
&c. were left to be ascertained and determined, at some future
day, by commissioners.

The evil consequences of leaving boundaries thus unsettled,
were soon perceived. Disputes arose, which, mingling with
other differences of still greater importance, led England to
declare war against France and Spain, May 4th, 1702.

9. The whole weight of the war in America unex
pectedly fell on New England. The geographical po-
sition of New York particularly exposed that colony to
a combined attack from the lakes and sea; but just be-
fore the commencement of hostilities, a treaty of neu-
trality was concluded between the Five Nations and
the French governor in Canada. The local situa-
tion of the Five Nations, bordering on the frontiers of
New York, prevented the French from molesting that
colony. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were thus
left to bear the chief calamities of the war.

The declaration of war was immediately followed by
incursions of French and Indians from Canada into
these colonies, who seized every opportunity of annoy-
ing the inhabitants, by depredation and outrage.

On Tuesday, February 20th, 1704, at day-break, a party of
French and Indians, three hundred in number, under command

4
WARfc OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 10a

of the infamous Hextel De Rouville, fell upon Deerfield, Mass.
Unhappily, not only the inhabitants, but even the watch, were
asleep. They soon made themselves masters of the house in
which the garrison was kept. Proceeding thence to the house
of Mr. Williams, the clergyman, they forced the doors, and en-
tered the room where he was sleeping.

Awaked by the noise, Mr. Williams seized his pistol, and
snapped it at the Indian who first approached ; but it missed fire.
Mr. Williams was now seized, disarmed, bound, and kept stand-
ing without his clothes, in the intense cold, nearly an hour.

His house was next plundered, and two of his children, to-
gether with a black female servant, were butchered before his
eyes. The savages, at length, suffered his wife and five chil-
dren to put on their clothes, after which he was himself allowed
to dress, and prepare for a long and melancholy journey.

The whole town around them was now on fire. Every house,
but the one next to Mr. Williams's, was consumed. Having
completed their work of destruction, in burning the town, and
killing forty-seven persons, the enemy hastily retreated, taking
with them one hundred of the inhabitants, among whom were
Mr. Williams and his family.

The first night after their departure from Deerfield, the sav-
ages murdered Mr. Williams's servant; and, on the day succeed-
ing, finding Mrs. Williams unable to keep pace with the rest,
plunged a hatchet into her head. She had recently borne an
infant, and was not yet recovered. But her husband was not per-
mitted to assist her. He himself was lame, bound, insulted,
threatened, and nearly famished ; but what were personal suffer-
ings like*tbese, and even greater than these, to the sight of a
wife, under circumstances so tender, inhumanly butchered be-
fore* his eyes ! Before the journey was ended, seventeen others
shared the melancholy fate of Mrs. Williams.

On their arrival in Canada, it may be added, Mr. Williams
was treated with civility by the French. At the end of two
years, he was redeemed, with fifty-seven others, and returned to
Deerfield, where, after twelve years' labor in the gospel, he en-
tered into his rest.

10. In the spring of 1707, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, and New Hampshire, despatched an armament
against Port Royal-, in Nova Scotia. The expedition,
consisting of one thousand men, sailed from Nantucket,
in twenty-three transports, under convoy of the Deptfort
man-of-war, and the Province galley. After a short
voyage, they arrived at Port Royal ; but March, the
commander of the expedition, though a brave man, be*
9*

102 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

ing unfit to lead in an enterprise so difficult, little was
done beyond burning a few houses and killing a few
cattle.

While this unfortunate expedition was in progress, the frontiers
were kept in constant alarm. Oyster River, Exeter, Kingston,
and Dover, in New Hampshire, Berwick, York, Wells, and Cas-
co, in Maine, were attacked, and considerably damaged by the
enemy.

11. The colonies were now resolved on another at-
tempt upon Canada. In 1708, Massachusetts petitioned
Queen Anne for assistance, and she promised to send
five regiments of regular troops. These, with twelve
hundred men raised in Massachusetts and Rhode Island,
were to sail from Boston to Quebec.

A second division of one thousand eight hundred
men, from colonies south of Rhode Island, were to march
against Montreal, by way of Champlain ; but this pro-
ject also failed, the land troops returning, after penetrat-
ing to Wood Creek, in consequence of learning that the
naval armament, promised from England, had been di-
rected to Portugal.

■ 12. The patience of the colonies was not yet ex-
hausted. Another application was made to the queen,
and, in July, 1710, Col. Nicholson came over with five
frigates and a bomb ketch, for the purpose of reducing
Port Royal. In this expedition, he was joined by five
regiments of troops from New England.

The armament, consisting of the above frigates, and
between twenty and thirty transports, belonging to the
colonies, sailed from Boston, September 18th. On the
24th, it reached Port Royal, which surrendered October
5th, and, in honor of Queen Anne, was called Annapolis.

Animated with his success, Nicholson soon after sailed for
England, to solicit another expedition against Canada. Contrary
to the expectations of the colonies, the ministry acceded to the
proposal, and orders were issued to the northern colonies to get
ready their quotas of men.

Sixteen days after these orders arrived, a fleet of men-of-war
and transports, under command of Sir Hovenden Walker, with
seven regiments of the Duke of Marlborough's troops, and a bat

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 103

talion of marines, under Brigadier-General Hill, sailed into Bos-
ton. But the fleet had neither provisions nor pilots. Aided,
however, by the prompt and active exertions of the colonies, on
the 30th of July, the fleet, consisting of fifteen men-of-war, forty
transports, and six store-ships, with nearly seven thousand men,
sailed from Boston for Canada.

Shortly after the departure of the fleet, General Nicholson
proceeded from Albany towards Canada, at the head of four
thousand men, from the colonies of Connecticut, New York, and
New Jersey.

The fleet arrived in the St. Lawrence, August 14th. In pro-
ceeding up the river, through the unskilfulness of the pilots,
ind by contrary winds, it was in imminent danger of entire de-
struction. On the 22d, about midnight, the seamen discovered
that they were driven on the north shore, among islands and
rocks. Eight or nine of the British transports, on board of
which were about one thousand seven hundred officers and
soldiers, were cast away, and nearly one thousand men were lost.
Upon this disaster, no further attempts were made to prosecute
the expedition. The fleet sailed directly for England, and the
provincial troops returned home. Gen. Nicholson, who had ad-
vanced to Lake George, hearing of the fate of the expedition on
the St. Lawrence, returned with the land forces, and abandoned
the enterprise.

The failure of this expedition was unjustly imputed, by the
mother country, wholly to New England ; nor did the colonies
receive any credit for their vigorous exertions in raising men
and fitting out the fleet. The expedition was not, however,
without a beneficial effect, as it probably prevented Annapolis
from falling into the hands of the enemy.

13. The spring of 1712 opened with new depreda-
tions of the enemy upon the frontier settlements. Oys-
ter River, Exeter, York, Wells, &c, were again attacked
and plundered. Many inhabitants, in different parts of
the country, were murdered, although, in some portions
of the colonies, one half of the militia were constantly
on duty.

14. The northern colonies were not alone in the dis-
tresses of Queen Anne's war. Carolina, then the south-
ern frontier of the American colonies, had her full share
in its expenses and sufferings.

Before official intelligence had been received of the
declaration of war by England against France and Spain,
in 1702, although war had actually been declared, Gov

104 period m.— 1689 to 1756.

Moore, of the southern settlements in Carolina, proposed
to the assembly of the colony an expedition against the
Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, in Florida.

Although assured of its easy conquest, and of being
amply rewarded by its treasures of gold and silver, num-
bers of the more considerate in the assembly were op-
posed to the expedition. A majority, however, being in
favor of it, two thousand pounds were voted, and one
thousand two hundred men were raised, of whom one
half were Indians; but the expedition entirely failed.

With the forces above named, and some merchant vessels, im-
pressed as transports, Gov. Moore sailed for St. Augustine. The
design was for Col. Daniel, an enterprising officer, to proceed
by the inland passage, and to attack the town by land, with a
party of militia and Indians ; while Moore was to proceed by
sea, and take possession of the harbor. Daniel advanced against
the town, entered, and plundered it. before the governor's arrival.
The Spaniards, however, retired to the castle, with their princi-
pal riches, and with provisions for four months.

The governor, on his arrival, could effect nothing for want of
artillery. In this emergency, Daniel was despatched to Jamaica
for cannon, mortars, &c. During his absence, two large Span-
ish ships appearing off the harbor, Gov. Moore hastily raised the
siege, abandoned his shipping, and made a precipitate retreat into
Carolina. Col. Daniel, having no intelligence that the siege had
been raised, on his return, stood in for the harbor, and narrowly
escaped the ships of the enemy. In consequence of this rash
and unfortunate enterprise, the colony was loaded with a debt
of six thousand pounds, which gave rise to the first paper cur-
rency in Carolina, and was the means of filling the colony with
dissension and tumult.

15. The failure of this expedition was soon after, in a
measure, compensated by a successful war with the
Apalachian Indians, who, in consequence of their con-
nection with the Spaniards, became insolent and hostile.
Gov. Moore, with a body of white men and Indian allies,
marched into the heart of their country, and compelled
them to submit to the English.

All the towns of the tribes between the rivers Altamaha and
Savannah, were burnt, and between six hundred and eight hun-
dred Indians were made prisoners.

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 105

16. Although this enterprise was successful, new dan-
gers soon threatened the colony. Its invasion was at-
tempted, 1707, by the French and Spaniards, in order to
annex Carolina to Florida. The expedition, headed by
Le Feboure, consisted of a French frigate, and four arm-
ed sloops, having about eight hundred men on board.
Owing to the prompt and vigorous measures of Johnson,
who had superseded Moore as governor, the enemy were
repulsed, and the threatened calamity averted.

No sooner was the intended invasion rumored abroad, than
preparations were commenced to repel the enemy. The militia
were mustered and trained, and the fortifications of Charleston
and other places repaired. These preparations were scarcely
completed, before the fleet of the enemy appeared. Some time
elapsed, however, before they crossed the bar, which enabled the
governor to alarm the surrounding country, and to call in great
numbers of the militia.

At length, with a fair wind, the enemy passed the bar, and
sent a summons to the governor to surrender. Four hours were
allowed him to return his answer. But the governor informed
the messenger that he did not wish one minute. On the recep-
tion of this answer, the enemy seemed to hesitate, and attempt-
ed nothing that day.

The day succeeding, a party of the enemy, landing on James
Island, burnt a village by the river's side. Another party, of one
hundred and sixty, landed at Wando Neck. The next day, botli
these parties were dislodged ; the latter party being surprised,
and nearly all killed or taken prisoners.

This success so animated the Carolinians, that it was deter-
mined to attack the enemy by sea. This was attempted with a
force of six vessels, under command of William Rhet; but on the
appearance of Rhet, the enemy weighed anchor, and precipitate-
ly fled.

Some days succeeding this, Monsieur Arbuset appeared on the
coast with a ship of force, and landed a number of men at Sewee
Bay. Rhet sailed out against him, and, at the same time, Capt.
Fenwick crossed the river, and marched to attack the enemy by
Hand. After a brisk engagement, Fenwick took the enemy on
land prisoners, and Rhet succeeded in capturing the ship.

17. In 1710, a large number of Palatines, inhabit-
ants of a Palatinate, a small territory in Germany, whose
governor or prince is called a Palatine, arrived and set-
tled on the Roanoke, in Albemarle and Bath counties,

106 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

within the boundaries of North Carolina. These wero
a great accession to the strength and numbers of the
colony, which, although of sixty years' standing, was ex-
ceedingly small.

The same year, near three thousand of the same people came
to New York. Some settled in that city, and built the old Lu-
theran church : others settled on Livingston's manor. Some
went into Pennsylvania, and, at subsequent periods, were follow-
ed by many thousands of their countrymen.

Two years after the above settlers arrived in Carolina,
and during Queen Anne's war, a plot was laid by the
Corees and Tuscaroras, with other Indian tribes, to
massacre the whole number. This plot was soon so far
put in execution, that one hundred and seven settlers
were butchered in their houses in a single night. In-
formation of their distress being conveyed to Charleston,
Col. Barnwell, with six hundred militia and three hun-
dred and fifty friendly Indians, explored their way through
the intervening wilderness, and came to their relief. On
his arrival, Col. B. surprised the Tuscaroras, killed three
hundred of them, and made one hundred prisoners.

The surviving Indians fled to a town which had been fortified
by the tribe ; but here they were again attacked by Barnwell,
who killed great numbers of them, and compelled the remainder
to sue for peace. It is estimated that the Tuscaroras, in this
war, lost one thousand of their number. The remainder of the
tribe, early after the war, abandoned the country, and became
united with the Five Nations, which since that time have been
called the Six Nations.

18. The following year, March 31st, 1713, a treaty
of peace was concluded at Utrecht, between England
and France. This relieved the apprehensions of the
northern part of the country, and put a welcome period
to an expensive and distressing war. After the peace
was known in America, the eastern Indians sent in a
flag and desired peace. The governor of Massachu-
setts, with his council, and with that of New Hampshire,
met them at Portsmouth, received their submission, and
entered into terms of pacification.

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 107

By the above treaty between England and France, Newfound-
land and Nova Scotia were ceded to Great Britain. It was also
stipulated, that " the subjects of France, inhabiting Canada and
other places, shall hereafter give no hinderance or molestation to
the Five Nations, nor to the other nations of Indians who are
friends to Great Britain." By the treaty, also, the French relin-
quished all claim to the Five Nations, and to all parts of their
territories, and, as far as respected themselves, entitled the British
crown to the sovereignty of the country.

19. The termination of Queen Anne's war gave peace
to the northern colonies, but the contest with the Indian?
continued for some time to distress the Carolinians.

Scarcely had the people recovered from the above war with
the Corees and Tuscaroras, before they were threatened with a
calamity still greater and more general. The Yamosees, a
powerful tribe of Indians, with all the Indian tribes from Florida
to Cape Fear river, formed a conspiracy for the total extirpation
of the Carolinians. The 15th of April, 1715, was fixed upon as
the day of general destruction. Owing, however, to the wisdom,
despatch and firmness of Governor Craven, and the blessing of
Providence, the calamity was in a measure averted, and the
colonies saved, though at the expense, during the war, of near
four hundred of the inhabitants. The Yamosees were expelled
the province, and took refuge among the Spaniards in Florida.

20. In 1719, the government of Carolina, which till
now had been proprietary, was changed, the charter be-
ing declared by the king's privy council to have been
forfeited ; and from this time, the colony was taken un-
der the royal protection, under which it continued till
the American revolution.

The people had long been disgusted with the management of
the proprietors, and were resolved, at all hazards, to execute their
own laws, and defend the rights of the province. A subscription
to this effect was drawn up and generally signed.

On the meeting of the assembly, a committee was sent with
this subscription to the governor, Robert Johnson, requesting hiin
to accept the government of the province, under the king, instead
of the proprietors.

Upon his refusal, the assembly chose Col. James Moore gov
ernor, under the crown; and on the 21st of December, 1719, the
convention and militia marched to Charleston fort, and proclaim-
ed Moore governor in his majesty's name.

The Carolinians, having assumed the government, in behalf
of the king, referred their complaints to the royal ear. On a full

108 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

hearing of the case, the privy council adjudged that the propria
tors had forfeited their charter. From this time, therefore, the
colony, as stated above, was taken under the royal protection,
under which it continued till the American revolution.

This change was followed, in 17!2I), by another, nearly as im-
portant. This was an agreement between the proprietors and
the crown, that the former should surrender to the crown their
right and interest both to the government and soil, for the sum
of seventeen thousand five hundred pounds sterling. This agree-
ment being carried into effect, the province was divided into
North and South Carolina, each province having a distinct gov-
ernor under the crown of England.

21. It has been stated that peace was concluded
by Massachusetts and New Hampshire, with the eastern
Indians, soon after the pacification at Utrecht, in 1713.
This peace, however, was of short duration, dissatisfac-
tion arising on the part of the Indians, because of the en-
croachments of the English on their lands, and because
trading-houses were not erected for the purchase of then
commodities.

The governor of Massachusetts promised them re-
dress ; but, the general court not carrying his stipula-
tions into execution, the Indians became irritated, and,
at the same time, being excited by the French Jesuits,
were roused to war, which, in July, 1722, became gen-
eral, and continued to distress the eastern settlements
until 1725.

The tribes engaged in the war were the Norridgewock.s, Pe-
nobscots. St. Francois, Cape Sable, and St. John Indians. In
June, 1725, hostilities ceased, soon after which a treaty was sign-
ed by the Indians, and was afterwards ratified by commissioners
from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. This
treaty was greatly applauded; and under it, owing to the more
pacific feelings of the Indians, and the more faithful observance
of its stipulations by the English, the colonies experienced un-
usual tranquillity for a long time.

22. The settlement of Georgia was begun in 1733,
and was named after King George II., at that time on
the throne of England. In the settlement of Georgia,
two objects were principally in view — the relief of indi-
gent inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland, and the
greater security of the Carolinas.

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 109

The charter was granted to twenty-one persons, under the
title of trustees, and passed the seals June 9th. 173*2. The first
settlers, one hundred and sixteen in number, embarked from
England in November of the same year, under General Ogle-
thorpe. They landed at Charleston, whence they repaired to
Ytimacraro-bluff, on Savannah river, and commenced the town of
that name.

The colony, for many years, did not flourish. In their regula-
tions for its management, the trustees enacted that all lands
granted by them to settlers should revert back, in case of the fail-
ure of male succession ; although certain privileges were to be
allowed to widows and daughters. At the same time, all trade
with the Indians was prohibited, unless by virtue of special li-
cence. The use of negroes, and the importation of rum, were
absolutely forbidden.

Although the trustees were actuated by the purest motives —
by principles of humanity, and a regard to the health and morals
of the inhabitants — this system of regulations was unfitted to the
condition of the poor settlers, and was highly injurious to their
increase and prosperity.

Emigrants, however, continued to arrive. The first adven-
turers, being poor and unenterprising, a more active and efficient
race was desirable. To induce such to settle in the colony,
eleven towns were laid out in shares of fifty acres each ; one of
which was offered to each new settler. Upon this, large num-
bers of Swiss, Scotch, and Germans, became adventurers to the
colony. Within three years from the first settlement, one thou-
sand four hundred planters had arrived.

To aid the colony, parliament made several grants of money ,
individuals also gave considerable sums for the same purpose :
owing, however, to the impolitic regulations of the trustees, the
colony maintained only a feeble existence.

Oglethorpe and his party arrived on the banks of the Savan
nah. on the first of February. For several days, the people were
employed in erecting a fortification, and in felling the woods,
while the general marked out the town. The first house was
begun on the ninth, and the town, after the Indian name of the
river, was called Savannah. The fort being completed, the guns
mounted, and the colony put in a state of safety, the next object
of Oglethorpe's attention was to treat with the Indians, for a
share of their possessions. In his intercourse with the Indians,
he was greatly assisted by an Indian woman, whom he found at
Savannah, by the name of Mary Musgrove. She had resided
among the English, in another part of the country, and was well
acquainted with their language. She was of great use, therefore,
to Gen. Oglethorpe, as an interpreter, for which service he gave
her a hundred pounds a year.
10

110 period in.— 1689 to 1756

Among those who came over with Gen. Oglethorpe was a
man by the name of Thomas Bosom worth, who was the chaplain
of the colony. Soon after his arrival at Savannah, he married
the above-mentioned Mary Musgrove. Unhappily, Bosomworth
was at heart a bad man, though by profession a minister of the
gospel. He was distinguished for his pride and love of riches
and influence. At the same time, he was artful and intriguing;
yet, on account of his profession, he was, for a time, much re-
spected by the Indians.

At one of the great councils of the Indians, this artful man
induced the chiefs to crown Malatche,one of the greatest among
them, emperor of all the Creeks. After this, he persuaded his
wife to call herself the eldest sister of Malatche ; and she told
the Indians, that one of her grandfathers had been made king, by
the Great Spirit, over all the Creeks. The Indians believed
what Mary told them ; for they had become very proud of her
since Gen. Oglethorpe had taken so much notice of her, and
had been so kind to her ; and they acknowledged her for their
queen. They called a great meeting of the chiefs, and Mary
made them a long talk. She told them, that the whites were
their enemies, and had done them much injury — that they were
getting away the lands of the Indians, and would soon drive
them from all their possessions. Said she, " We must assert our
rights — we must arm ourselves against them — we must drive
them from our territories. Let us call forth our warriors — I will *
head them. Stand by me, and the houses which they have
erected shall smoke in ruins." The spirit of Queen Mary was
contagious. Every chief present declared himself ready to de-
fend her to the last drop of his blood.

After due preparation, the warriors were called forth. They
had painted themselves afresh, and sharpened anew their toma-
hawks for the battle. Their march was now commenced. Queen
Mary, attended by her infamous husband, the real author and
instigator of all their discontent, headed the savage throng.
Before they reached Savannah, their approach was announced.
The people were justly alarmed. They were few in number,
and though they had a fortification and cannon, they had no
good reason to hope, that they should be able to ward off the
deadly blow which was aimed against them.

By this time, the savages were in sight of Savannah. At this
critical moment, an Englishman, by the name of Noble Jones, a
bold and daring man, rode forth, with a few spirited men, on
horseback, to meet them. As he approached them, he exclaimed,
in a voice like thunder, " Ground your arms! groumd your arms! .
not an armed Indian shall set his foot in this town."

Awe-struck at his lofty tone, and perceiving him and his com-
panions ready to dash in among them, they paused, and soon af

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. Ill

ter laid down their arms. Bosomworth and his queen were now
summoned to march into the city — the Indian chiefs were also
allowed to enter, but without their arms. On reaching the pa-
rade ground, the thunder of fifteen cannon, fired at the same
moment, told them what they might expect, should they persist
in their hostile designs. The Indians were now marched to the
house of the president of the council in Savannah. Bosomworth
was required to leave the Indians, while the president had a
friendly talk with them.

In his address to them, he assured them of the kindness of the
English, and demanded what they meant by coming in this war-
like manner. In reply, they told the president that they had
heard that Mary was to be sent over the great waters, and they
had come to learn why they were to lose their queen. Findin<r
that the Indians had been deceived, and that Bosomworth was
the author of all the trouble, and that he had even intended to
get possession of the magazine, and to destroy the whites, the
council directed him to be seized and thrown into prison. This
step Mary resented with great spirit. Rushing forth among the
Indians, she openly cursed Gen. Oglethorpe, although he had
raised her from poverty and distress, and declared that the
whole world should know, that the ground she trod upon was
her own.

The warlike spirit of the Indians being thus likely to be re-
newed, it was thought advisable to imprison Mary also. This
was accordingly done. At the same time, to appease the Indians,
a sumptuous feasts was made for the chiefs by the president, who,
during the better state of feeling, which seemed to prevail, took
occasion to explain to them the wickedness of Bosomworth, and
how, by falsehood and cunning, he had led them to believe that
Mary was really their queen — a descendant of one of their great
chiefs. " Brothers," said he, " this is not true — Queen Mary is
no other than Mary Musgrove, whom I found poor, and who has
been made the dupe of the artful Bosomworth, and you, brothers,
the dupes of both."

The aspect of things was now pleasant. The Indians were
beginning to be satisfied of the villany of Bosomworth, and of the
real character of Mary ; but, at this moment, the door was thrown
open, and, to the surprise of all, Mary burst into the room. She
had made her escape from prison, and, learning what was going
on, she rushed forward with the fury of a tigress. " Seize your
arms ! " exclaimed she,'* seize your arms ! remember your prom-
ise, and defend your queen." The sight of their queen seemed to
bring back, in a moment, all the original ardor of the enterprise.
In an instant, every chief seized his tomahawk, and sprang from
the ground, to rally at the call of their queen.

At this moment, Capt. Jones, who was present, perceiving the

112 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

danger of the president and the other whites, drew his sword,
and demanded peace. The majesty of his countenance — the fir*
of his eye- — the glittering of his sword — told Queen Mary what
she might expect, should she attempt to raise any higher the fe-
verish spirits of her subjects. The Indians cast an eye towards
her, as if to inquire what they should do. Her countenance fell.
Perceiving his advantage, Jones stepped forward, and, in the
presence of the Indians, seized Mary, and conducted her back to
prison.

A short imprisonment so far humbled both Bosomworth and
Mary, that each wrote a letter, confessing what they had done,
and promising, if released, that they would conduct with more
propriety in future. The people kindly forgave them both, and
they left the city. But they did not perform their promise.
Bosomworth again tried to make Mary queen, and to get posses-
sion of three large islands called Ossabaw, Sapelo, and St. Cath-
erine's. He pretended that they had been given to him by the In-
dians. Finding, however, that he could not sustain his claim, he
went over to England with Mary, and there instituted a lawsuit
for their recovery. At length, having obtained St. Catharines
island, by a judgment of the court, he returned with his wife,
and took up his residence on that island. Here Mary died ',
some time after which Bosomworth married one of his own ser
vants, who did not survive him. At length, he finished his own
inglorious life, and was buried between his two wives, upon the
island which had cost him so much trouble.

23. Gen. Oglethorpe, having been appointed command-
er-in-chief of the forces of South Carolina and Georgia,
projected an expedition against St. Augustine, in 1740.
Aided by Virginia and Carolina, he marched, at the
head of more than two thousand men, for Florida ; and.
after taking two small Spanish forts, Diego and Moosa,
he sat down before St. Augustine. Capt. Price, with
several twenty-gun ships, assisted by sea ; but after all
their exertions, the general was forced to raise the siege,
and return with considerable loss.

24. Two years after, 1742, the Spaniards invaded
Georgia, in turn. A Spanish armament, consisting of
thirty-two sail, with three thousand -men, under com-
mand of Don Manuel de Monteano, sailed from St. Au-
gustine, and arrived in the river Altamaha. The expe-
dition, although fitted out at great expense, failed of
accomplishing its object.

WARS OF WILLIAM III., OJME, AND GEORGE II. 113

Gen. Oglethorpe was, at this time, at Fort Simons. Findincr
himself unable to retain possession of it, having but about seven
nundred men, he spiked his cannon, and, destroying his military
stores, retreated to his head-quarters at Frederica.

On the first prospect of an invasion, Gen. Oglethorpe had ap-
plied to the governor of South Carolina for assistance; but the
Carolinians, fearing for the safety of their own territory, and not
approving of Gen. Oglethorpe's management in his late expedi-
tion against St. Augustine, declined furnishing troops, but voted
supplies.

In this state of danger and perplexity, the general resorted to
stratagem. A French soldier belonging to his army had desert-
ed to the enemy. Fearing the consequences of their learning
his weakness, he devised a plan by which to destroy the credit
of any information that the deserter might give.

With this view, he wrote a letter to the French deserter in the
Spanish camp, addressing him as if he were a spy of the English.
This letter he bribed a Spanish captive to deliver, in which he
directed the deserter to state to the Spaniards, that he was
in a weak and defenceless condition, and to urge them to an
attack.

Should he not be able, however, to persuade them to this, he
wished him to induce them to continue three days longer at
their quarters, in which time he expected two thousand men,
and six British men-of-war, from Carolina. The above letter,
as was intended, was delivered to the Spanish general, instead
of the deserter, who immediately put the latter in irons.

A council of war was called, and, while deliberating upon the
measures which should be taken, three supply ships, which had
been voted by Carolina, appeared in sight. Imagining these to
be the men-of-war alluded to in the letter, the Spaniards, in great
haste, fired the fort, and embarked, leaving behind them several
cannon, and a quantity of provisions. By this artful, but unjus-
tifiable expedient, the country was relieved of its invaders, and
Georgia, and probably a great part of South Carolina, saved
Tom ruin.

25. In 1752, the colony continuing in a languishing
< ondition, although parliament had at different times
given them nearly one hundred thousand pounds, and
many complaints having been made against the system
of regulations adopted by the trustees, they surrendered
their charter to the crown, upon which the government
became regal. In 1755, a general court was established.
26. March 29th, 1744, Great Britain, under
10*

114 period in. — 1689 to 175G.

George II, declared war against France and Spain,
The most important event of this war, in America, was
the capture of Louisburg from the French, by the New
England colonies, under command of Sir William Pep-

perell.

After the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, the French had built
Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, as a security to their
navigation and fishery, and had fortified it at an expense of five
millions and a half of dollars. The fortifications consisted of a
rampart of stone, nearly thirty-six feet in height, and a ditch
eighty feet wide. There were six bastions, and three batteries,
with embrasures for one hundred and forty-eight cannon, and six
mortars. On an island, at the entrance of the harbor, was an-
oilier battery of thirty cannon, carrying twenty-eight pounds shot ;
and at the bottom of the harbor, opposite the entrance, was sit-
uated the royal battery or twenty-eight forty-two pounders, and
two eighteen pounders. The entrance of the town, on the land
side, was at the west, over a draw-bridge, near which was a cir-
cular battery, mounting sixteen guns of twenty-four pounds shot.
These works had been twenty-five years in building, and though
not entirely completed, were of such strength, that the place was
sometimes called the " Gibraltar of America."

The acquisition of this place was deemed eminently
important to New England, since, while in possession of
the French, it had furnished a safe and convenient re-
treat to such privateers as disturbed and captured the
inhabitants of the colonies employed in the fisheries.

Impressed with the necessity of measures to secure this for-
tress. Gov. Shirley, of Massachusetts, had solicited the assistance
of the British ministry, for the acquisition of Cape Breton.
Early in January, 1745, before receiving an answer to his letters
to England, he communicated to the general court, under an
oath of secrecy, a plan which he had formed for an attaok on
Louisburg. To this plan strong objections were urged, and the
proposal of the governor was at first rejected ; but upon recon-
sideration, it was carried by a majority of a single voice. Cir-
culars were immediately addressed to the colonies as far south
as Pennsylvania, requesting their assistance, and that an embar-
go might be laid on all their ports. The New England colonies
only, however, were concerned in the expedition. Of the forces
raised, Massachusetts furnished three thousand two hundred and
fifty ; Connecticut five hundred and sixteen ; Rhode Island and

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 1 lh

New Hampshire, each, three hundred. The naval force consist-
ed of twelve ships and vessels. Jn two months the army was
enlisted, victualled, and equipped for service.

On the twenty-third of March, an express boat, which had
been sent to Com. Warren, in the West Indies, to invite his co-
operation, returned to Boston, with advices from him, that, as the
contemplated expedition was a colonial affair, without orders
from England, he must excuse himself from any concern in the
enterprise. This intelligence was peculiarly unwelcome ; but,
the governor and general concealing the tenor of the advice, the
army was embarked, and the next morning the fleet sailed. On
the fourth of April, the fleet and army arrived in safety at Canso,
where they were joined by the troops from New Hampshire, and
soon after by those from Connecticut.

Most unexpectedly to the general, Com. Warren, with his
fleet, arrived at Canso, having, soon after his advices by the ex-
press boat to Gov. Shirley, received orders to repair to North
America, and to concert measures with the governor for his
majesty's service. Hearing that the fleet had sailed for Canso,
he proceeded directly for that port. Great was the joy which
pervaded the whole fleet and camp, on the arriv-1 of this impor-
tant auxiliary force. After a short consultaii a th Gen. Pep-
perell, Com. Warren sailed to cruise before Liui-burg, and, not
long after, was followed by the fleet and army, which, on the
thirtieth of April, arrived in Chapearouge bay. The enemy
were, until this moment, in profound ignorance that any attack
was meditated against them.

The sight of the transports gave the alarm to the French,
and a detachment was sent to oppose the landing of the
troops. But, while the general diverted the attention of the
enemy by a feint at one place, he was landing his men at
another.

The next morning, four hundred of the English marched
round behind the hills to the north-east harbor, setting fire to all
the houses and stores, till they came within a mile of the royal
battery. The conflagration of the stores, in which was a consid-
erable quantity of tar, concealed the English troops, at the same
time that it increased the alarm of the French so greatly, that
they precipitately abandoned the royal battery. Upon their
flight, the English took possession of it, and, by means of a well-
directed fire from it, seriously damaged the town.

The main body of the army now commenced the siege. For
fourteen nights, they were occupied in drawing cannon towards
the town, over a morass, in which oxen and horses could not be
used. Incredible was the toil ; but what could not men accom-
plish, who had been accustomed to draw the pines of the forests
for masts ? By the 20th of May, several fascine batteries had

116

period in. — 1GS9 to 1758.

been erected, one of which mounted five forty-two pounders.
On opening these batteries, they did great execution.

In the mean time, Com. Warren captured the Vigilant, a
French ship of seventy-four guns, and with her five hundred and
sixty men, together with great quantities of military stores
This capture was of great consequence, as it not only increased
the English force, and added to their military supplies, but as it
seriously lessened the strength of the enemy. Shortly after this
capture, the number of the English fleet was considerably aug-
mented by the arrival of several men-of-war. A combined at-
tack by sea and land was now determined on, and fixed for the
18th of June.

Previously to the arrival of this additional naval force, much
had been accomplished towards the reduction of the place The
inland battery had been silenced ; the western gate of the town
was beaten down, and a breach effected in the wall ; the circu-
lar battery of sixteen guns was nearly ruined, and the western
flank of the king's bastion was nearly demolished.

Such being the injured state of the works, and perceiving
preparations making for a joint assault, to sustain which little
prospect remained, on the 15th the enemy desired a cessa-
tion of hostilities, and on the 17th of June, after a siege of forty-
nine days, the city of Louisburg, and the island of Cape Breton,
'vere surrendered to his Britannic majesty.

WARS OF WILLIAM 111., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 117

Thus successfully terminated a daring expedition, which had
been undertaken without the knowledge of the mother country.
The acquisition cf the fortress of Louisburg was as useful and
important to the colonies, and to the British empire, as its re-
duction was surprising to that empire and mortifying to the
court of France.

Besides the stores and prizes which fell into the hands 01 the
English, which were estimated at little less than a million ster-
ling, security was given to the colonies in their fisheries ; Nova
Scotia was preserved, and the trade and fisheries of France nearly
ruined.

27. The capture of Louisburg roused the court of
France to revenge. Under the Duke D'Anville, a no*
bleman of great courage, an armament was despatched
to America, in 1746, consisting of forty ships of war,
fifty-six transports, with three thousand five hundred
men, and forty thousand stands of arms for the use of
the French and Indians in Canada. The object of this
expedition was to recover possession of Cape Breton, and
to attack the colonies. A merciful Providence, how-
ever, averted the blow, and, by delaying the fleet, and
afterwards disabling it in a storm, blasted the hopes of
the enemy.

Great was the consternation of the colonies, when the news
arrived that the French fleet was near the American coast,
and greatly increased, on learning that no English fleet was in
quest of it.

Several ships of this formidable French fleet were damaged
by storms ; others were lost, and one forced to return to Brest, on
account of a malignant disease among her crew. Two or three
only of the ships, with a few of the transports, arrived at Che-
bucto, now Halifax. Here the admiral died, through mortifica-
tion ; or, as some say, by poison. The vice-admiral came to a
similar tragical death, by running himself through the body.
That part of the fleet that arrived, sailed with a view to attack
Annapolis; but a storm scattered them, and prevented the ac
complishment of this object.

28. in April, 174S, preliminaries of peace were
Bigned between France and England, at Aix la Chapelle,
soon after which hostilities ceased. The definitive
treaty was signed in October. Prisoners on all sides

118 period in. — 1689 to 1756.

were to be released without ransom, and all conquests
made during the war were to be mutually restored.

NOTES.

29. Manners of the Colonists. The colonies
were now peopled with inhabitants, by far the greater
part of whom were born and educated in America. And
although the first settlers were collected from most, or
all, the countries of Europe, and emigrants from various
nations continued to flock to America, still we may ob-
serve, during this period, a gradual assimilation of na-
tional manners and character. The peculiarities of
each class became less distinct by intercourse with the
others, and every succeeding generation seemed to ex-
hibit less strikingly those traits which distinguished
the preceding.

Although this is true with respect to the American colonies
generally, there were some exceptions. Some villages, or terri-
tories, being settled exclusively by emigrants speaking a different
language from that generally spoken — as the Germans, for ex-
ample— or entertaining some peculiar religious notions — as the
Quakers — still preserved their own peculiar manners.

But, in attempting to ascribe some general character to the
people of the colonies during this period, we might consider them,
as, during our second period, on the whole, exhibiting three va-
rieties ; viz. the rigid Puritan English of the north, the Dutch in
New York, and the luxurious English of the south. The aus-
terity of the north was, however, much relaxed. The elegant
varieties of life, which before had been prohibited, were tolerated,
and the refinements of polished society appeared among the higher
classes. The strong lines of Dutch manners in New York were
slowly disappearing, under ah English government, and by means
of the settlement of English among them. The manners of the
south were assuming an aspect of more refinement, particularly
among the higher classes, but showed little other change.

30. Religion. During this period, the spirit of re-
ligious bigotry and intolerance may be observed to have
abated in a very considerable degree. The conduct of
those sects, which had called forth those severe and un-

WARS OF WILLIAM HI., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 119

justifiable restrictions upon the freedom of religious wor-
ship, had become less offensive and exceptionable ; and
at the close of this period, religious persecution had
ceased in all the colonies, and the rights of conscience
were generally recognized.

In 1692, the Mcnnonites were introduced into Pennsylvania,
and settled at Germantown. Their increase, however, has been
small.

In 1719, the Tunkers, or General Baptists, arrived at Phila-
delphia, and dispersed themselves into several parts of Penn-
sylvania.

In 1741, the Moravians were introduced into America, by
Count Zinzendorf, and settled at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Regularity, industry, ingenuity, and economy, are characteristic
of this people. They have considerably increased, and are a re-
spectable body of Christians.

The German Lutherans were first introduced into the Ameri-
can colonies during this period, and settled principally in Penn-
sylvania and New York.

Episcopacy was considerably extended during this period. In
1693, it was introduced into New York ; into New Jersey and
Rhode Island in 1702; into South Carolina in 1703, by law; in
Connecticut in 1704.

In 1708, the Saybrook Platform was formed by a synod com-
posed of Congregational ministers, under authority of the legis-
lature of Connecticut.

About the year 1737, a revival of religion very extensively pre-
vailed in New England. At this time, great numbers united
themselves to the church, and testified, by their conduct through
life, the genuineness of their profession.

The celebrated Whitfield came to America about the year 1740,
and produced great religious excitement by his singular powers
of pulpit eloquence. He did not found any peculiar sect in this
country, although he gave rise to that of the Calvinistic Mctliod-
ists in England.

31. Trade and Commerce. Although the* trade of
the colonies began to feel the restrictions imposed upon
it by the mother country, still it steadily increased dur-
ing this period.

From the very commencement of the colonies, the mother
country was not without her jealousies respecting their increase
in population, trade, and manufactures. Inquiries on these points
were instituted, and opportunities sought to keep in check the
spirit of colonial enterprise. Laws were enacted from time to
time, designed and calculated, not only to make the colonies de

120 period in.— 1689 to 1756.

pend on the mother country for her manufactures, but also ta
limit their trade and commerce, and keep them in safe subjec-
tion to England.

As illustrating- this course of policy, we may notice several
laws of parliament. In 1732, an act was passed, prohibiting
" the exportation of hats out of the plantations of America, and
to restrain the number of apprentices taken by hat-makers." So
also the act of 1750 prohibited, on penalty -of two hundred
pounds," the erection of any mill for slitting or rolling of iron, or
any plating forge to work with a tilt hammer ; or any furnace for
making steel, in any of the colonies." At the same time, en-
couragement was given to export jng a.nd bar iron to England for
her manufactories. In like manner was prohibited the exporta-
tion from one province to another by water, and even the car-
riage by land, on horseback, or in a cart, of all wools and wool-
len goods of the produce of America. The colonies were also
compelled by law to procure many articles from England, which
they could have purchased twenty per cent, cheaper in other
markets.

But, notwithstanding these restrictions, trade and commerce
gradually and steadily increased. To England the colonies ex-
ported lumber of all sorts, hemp, flax, pitch, tar, oil, rosin, cop-
per ore, pig and bar iron, whale fins, tobacco, rice, fish, indigo,
flaxseed, beeswax, raw silk, &c. They also built many vessels,
which were sold in the mother country.

But the importation of goods from England, in consequence
of the course pursued by the British government, was still much
greater than the amount of the exports to England. In 1728, Sir
William Keith stated that the colonies then consumed one sixth
part of all the woollen manufactures exported from Great Britain,
and more than double that value in linen and calicoes ; also great
quantities of English manufactured silks, small wares, household
furniture, trinkets, and a very considerable value in East India
goods. From J 739 to 175(5, this importation of goods from Eng-
land amounted to one million of pounds sterling annually, on an
average.

But, if the amount of imports from Great Britain was thus
more than the colonies exported thither, they would fall in debt
to England. How did they pay this balance of trade against
them ? It was done by gold and silver obtained chiefly from the
West India settlements, to which they exported lumber, fish of
an inferior quality, beef, pork, butter, horses, poultry, and other
live stock, an inferior kind of tobacco, corn, cider, apples, cab
bages, onions, &c. They built also many small vessels, which
found a ready market.

The cod and whale fisheries wtre becoming considerable ; they
were principally carried on by Mew England. The codfish were
cold in Spain, France, England, the West Indies, &o ; and the

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 121

money obtained for them aided the colonies in paying the balance
of trade against them in England.

32. Agriculture. Agriculture, during this period,
was greatly improved and extended. Immense tracts
of forests were cleared, and more enlightened modes of
husbandry were introduced. The number of articles
produced by agriculture was also increased.

The colonies now not only raised a sufficient supply of food for
their own use, but their exports became great. Wheat and other
English grain were the principal products of the middle colonies ;
grain, beef, pork, horses, butter, cheese, <fec, were the chief prod-
ucts of the northern colonies ; tobacco, wheat, and rice, were
the principal products of the south.

In the south, also, large numbers of swine ran wild in the
forests, living upon mast. These were taken, salted down, and
exported to a considerable extent.

33. Arts and Manufactures. Under the head of
Commerce, we have noticed the obstacles interposed by
Great Britain to the progress of arts and manufactures.
Notwithstanding these, however, the coarser kinds of
cutlery, some coarse cloths, both linen and woollen, hats,
paper, shoes, household furniture, farming utensils, &c,
were liyanufactured to a considerable extent ; not suffi-
cient, htfvvever, to supply the inhabitants. All these man-
ufactures were on a small scale ; cloths were made in
some families, for their own consumption.

The art of printing made considerable progress during this pe-
riod. A newspaper, the first in North America, called The Bos-
ton Weekly News- Letter, was established in 1704. Before the close
of this period, ten others were established — four in New England \
two in New York; two in Pennsylvania ; one in South Carolina;
and one in Maryland. The number of books published was also
considerable, although they were executed in a coarse style, and
were generally books of devotion, or for the purposes of ed-
ucation.

34. Population. At the expiration of our second
period, we estimated the population of the English colo-
nies in America at 200,000 souls. About the close of
our third period, Franklin calculated that there were
then one million or upwards, and that scarce 80,000 had
been brought over sea.

122

period in. — 1689 to 1576.

This estimate of the population of America very nearly accords
with an estimate made in London, from " authentic authorities,"
May, 1755, which is as follows : —

New Hampshire 30,000

Massachusetts Bay 220,000

R. Island and Provi- > ox nnn

deuce Plantations 5 '** " **°>UUU

Connecticut 100,000

New England 385,000

Mid. and S. Colonies 661,000

Total 1,046,000

New York 100,000

The Jerseys 60.000

Pennsylvania 250.000

Maryland 85,000

Virginia 85,000

North Carolina 45,000

South Carolina 30,000

Georgia 6,000

661^000

3£. Education. The southern colonies continued to
treat the subject of education differently from the north-
ern colonies, in this respect; in the north, one of the
first objects of legislation was to provide for the educa-
tion of all classes ; in the south, the education of the
higher classes only was an object of public attention.

The first public institution for the purposes of education, which
succeeded in the south, was that of William and Mary College,
in Virginia, established in 1692, by the sovereigns whose names
it bears.

Yale College, in Connecticut, was commenced in 1700 ; eleven
of the principal ministers in the neighboring towns, who had been
appointed to adopt such measures as they should deem expedient,
on the subject of a college, agreeing to found one in the colony.
The next year, the legislature granted them a charter. The col-
lege was begun at Saybrook, where was held the first commence-
ment, in 1702. In 1717, it was removed to New Haven, where
it became permanently established. It was named after the Hon.
Elihu Yale, governor of the East India Company, who was its
principal benefactor.

The college at Princeton, New Jersey, called " Nassau Hall,"
was first founded by charter from John Hamilton, Esq., president
of the council, about the year 1738, and »was enlarged by Gov
Bolcher, in 1747.

REFLECTIONS.

36. The history of this period presents the North American
colonies to our view, at the same time that they were visited with
cruel and desolating wars, still advancing in population, extend-
ing their commerce, forming new settlements, enlarging the
boundaries of their territory, and laying wider and deeper the

WARS OF WILLIAM III., ANNE, AND GEORGE II. 12J.J

foundations of a future nation. And, while we look back, with
admiration, upon the hardy spirit which carried our ancestors
through scenes so trying, and enabled them to reap prosperity
from the crimsoned fields of battle and bloodshed, let us be thank-
ful that our lot is cast in a happier day ; and that, instead of shar-
ing in the perils of feeble colonies, we enjoy the protection and
privileges of a free and powerful nation.

In addition to the reflections subjoined to the account which
we have given of the " Salem witchcraft," we may add another,
respecting the danger of popular delusion. In that portion of our
history, we see a kind of madness rising up, and soon stretching
its influence oveT a whole community. And such, too, is the
pervading power of the spell, that the wise and ignorant, the
good and bad, are alike subject to its control, and, for the time,
alike incapable of judging or reasoning aright. Now, whenever
we see a community divided into parties, and agitated by some
general excitement ; when we feel ourselves borne along on one
side or the other, by the popular tide, — let us inquire whether we
are not acting under the influence of a delusion, which a few

Sears, perhaps a few months, or days, may dispel and expose,
for, at such a time, let us regard our sincerity, or our conscious-
ness of integrity, or the seeming clearness and certainty of our
reasonings, as furnishing an absolute assurance that, after all, we
do not mistake, and that our opponents are not right.

Another reflection of some importance, and one that may serve
to guard us against censuring, too severely, the wise and good, is
suggested by this account of the " Salem witchcraft." It is this,
that the best men are liable to err. We should not, therefore,
condemn, nor should we withhold our charity from, those who
fall into occasional error, provided their characters are, in othef
respects, such as to lay claim to our good opinion.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD IV.

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.

Extending from the Declaration of War by England
against France, 1756, to the Commencement of Hos-
tilities by Great Britain against the American Colo-
nies, in the Battle of Lexington, 1775.

Sec. 1. The war which ended in the treaty of Aix la
Chapelle, in 1748, (Period III. 28.) had been highly
injurious to the American colonies ; and the return of
peace found them in a state of impoverishment and dis-
tress. Great losses had been sustained in their com-
merce, and many of their vessels had been seized on
the coast by privateers. Bills of credit, to the amount
of several millions, had been issued to carry on the war,
which they were now unable to redeem ; and the losses
of men in various expeditions against the enemy, had
seriously retarded the increase of population.

The expenses of the northern colonies, including New Eng-
land and New York, during the war, were estimated at not less
than one million pounds sterling. Massachusetts alone is said to
have paid half this sum, and to have expended nearly four bun-
dled thousand pounds in the expedition against Cape Breton.
The expenses of Carolina, for the war in that quarter, were not
less in proportion.

To supply the deficiency of money, hills of credit were issued
to the amount of several millions. The bills issued by Massa
chusetts, during two or three years of the war, amounted to be-
tween two and three millions currency ; whilfe, at the time of

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 125

their emission, five or six hundred pounds were equal to only one
hundred pounds sterling. Before the complete redemption of these
bills, says Dr. Trumbull, in those colonies where their credit was
best supported, the depreciation was nearly twenty for one.

The losses sustained by the colonies, in the fall of many of
their bravest men, during this and the last Indian war, were se-
verely felt. From 1722 to 1749, a period of twenty-seven years,
the losses of Massachusetts and New Hampshire equalled
the whole increase of their numbers ; whereas, in the natural
course of population, their numbers would have more than
doubled.

Such was the general state of the colonies, at the close
of this war. The return of peace was hailed as the
harbinger of better days, and the enterprising spirit of
the people soon exerted itself to repair the losses which
had been sustained. Commerce, therefore, again flour-
ished ; population increased ; settlements were extended ;
and the public credit revived.

2. Scarcely, however, had the colonies begun to reap
the benefits of peace, before the sound of approaching
war filled the land with general anxiety and distress.
After an interval of only about eight years, from 1748
to May 18th, 1756, Great Britain, under George II.,
formally declared war against France; which declara-
tion was reciprocated, on the 9th of June, by a similar
declaration, on the part of France, under Louis XV.,
against Great Britain.

The general cause, leading to this war, commonly
called the " French and Indian war" was the alleged
encroachments of the French upon the frontiers of the
colonies in America, belonging to the English crown.

These encroachments were made upon Nova Scotia in the east,
which had been ceded to Great Britain by the 12th article of the
treaty of Utrecht, but to a considerable part of which the French
laid claim, and, in several places, were erecting fortifications. In
the north and west, they were settling and fortifying Crown
Point, and, in the west, were not only attempting to complete a
li ne of forts from the head of the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi,
but were encroaching far on Virginia.

The circumstance which served to open the war, was
the alleged intrusion of the Ohio Company upon the

126 period iv.— 1756 to 1775.

territory of the French. This company consisted of a
number of influential men, from London and Virginia,
who had obtained a charter grant of six hundred thou-
sand acres of land, on and near the river Ohio, for the
purpose of carrying on the fur trade with the Indians,
and of settling the country.

The governor of Canada had early intelligence of the
transactions of this company. Fearing that their plan
would deprive^ the French of the advantages of the fur
trade, and prevent communications between Canada and
Louisiana, he addressed a letter to the governors of New
York and Pennsylvania, claiming the country east of the
Ohio to the Alleganies, and forbidding the further en-
croachments of the English traders.

As yet, the Pennsylvanians had principally managed the trade
with the Indians. But, being now about to be deprived of it by
the Ohio Company, which was opening a road to the Potomac,
they excited the fears of the Indians, kst their lands should be
taken from them, and gave early intelligence to the French, of the
designs and transactions of the company.

The French governor soon manifested his hostile determina-
tion, by seizing several of the English traders, and carrying them
to a French port on the south of Lake Erie. — The Twightwees, a
tribe of Indians in Ohio, near Miami river, among whom the Eng-
lish had been trading, resented the seizure, and, by way of re-
taliation, took several French traders, and sent them to Pennsyl-
vania.

In the mean time, a communication was opened along

he French creek and Allegany river, between Fort

Presqu' lie, on Lake Erie, and the Ohio ; and French

troops were stationed at convenient distances, secured

by temporary fortifications.

The Ohio Company, thus threatened with the de-
struction of their trade, were loud in their complaints.
Dinwiddie, lieutenant-governor of Virginia, to whom
these complaints were addressed, laid the subject before
the assembly, which ordered a messenger to be despatch-
ed to the French commandant on the Ohio, to demand
the reasons of his hostile conduct, and to summon the
French to evacuate their forts in that region.

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. hll

3. Tne person intrusted with this service was George
Washington, who, at the early age of twenty-one, thu3
stepped forth in the public cause, and began that line of
services which ended in the independence of his
country.

The service to which Washington was appointed, was
both difficult and dangerous ; the place of his destination
being above four hundred miles distant, two hundred of
which lay through a wilderness inhabited only by In-
dians. He arrived in safety, however, and delivered a
letter from Gov. Dinwiddie to the commandant. Havinor
received a written answer, and secretly taken the di-
mensions of the fort, he returned. The reply of the
commandant to Gov. Dinwiddie was, that he had taken
possession of the country, under the direction of the gov-
ernor-general of Canada, to whom he would transmit his
letter, and whose orders only he would obey.

4. The British ministry, on being made acquainted
with the claims, conduct and determination of the
French, without a formal declaration of war, instructed
the Virginians to resist their encroachments by force of
arms. Accordingly, a regiment was raised in Virginia,
which was joined by an independent company from
South Carolina; and with this force, Washington, to whom
the expedition was intrusted, marched, early in April,
1754, towards the Great Meadows, lying within the dis-
puted territories, for the purpose of expelling the French,'
The conduct of Washington and his troops was highly
creditable to them ; but, the French forces being consid-
erably superior, he was obliged to capitulate, with the
privilege, however, of returning with his troops to Vir-
ginia.

On his arrival at the Great Meadows, he learned that the
French had dispossessed some Virginians of a fortification, which
the latter were erecting for the Ohio Company, at the confluence
*>f the Allegany and Monongahela, and were engaged in com-
pleting it, for their own use. He also learned, that a detachment
from that place, then on its march towards the Great Meadowy
had encamped for the night in a low and retired situation.

128 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

Under the guidance of some friendly Indians, and under cov.
er of a dark and rainy night, this party he surprised and captured.
Having erected, at the Great Meadows, a small stockade fort,
afterwards called Fort Necessity, he proceeded, with his force,
increased by troops from New York, and others from South Car-
olina, to nearly four hundred men, towards the French fort, du
Quesne, where Pittsburg now stands, with the intention of dis-
lodging the enemy. Hearing, however, that the enemy waa
approaching, he retired to Fort Necessity, where, not long after
he was attacked by a large body of troops from Fort du Quesne,
under command of M. de Villier. After an engagement of sev-
eral hours, de Villier demanded a parley, and offered terms of
capitulation. These terms were rejected ; but during the night,
July 4th, articles were signed, by which Washinsrton was permit-
ted, upon surrendering the fort, to march with his troops, unmo-
lested, to Virginia.

Such was the beginning of open hostilities, which
were succeeded by a series of other hostilities charac-
terized by the spirit and manner of war, although the
formal declaration of war was not made until 1756, two
years after, as already mentioned.

5. 1 he British ministry, perceiving war to be inevita-
ble, recommended to the British colonies in America to
unite in some scheme for their common defence. Ac-
cordingly, a convention of delegates from Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, with the lieutenant-governor and coun-
cil of New York, was held at Albany, in 175*4, and a
plan of union adopted, resembling, in several of its
features, the present constitution of the United States.

But the plan met with the approbation neither of the
provincial assemblies, nor the king's council. By the
former, it was rejected, because it gave too much power
to the crown ; and by the latter, because it gave too
much power to the people.

According to this plan, a grand council was to be formed, of
members chosen by the provincial assemblies, and sent from all
the colonies; which council, with a governor-general, appointed
by the crown, and having a negative voice, should be empower-
ed to make general laws, to raise money in all the colonies for
their defence, to call forth troops, regulate trade, lay duties^

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 129

The plan, thus matured, was approved and signed, on the
Fourth of July, the day that Washington surrendered Fort Ne-
cessity, and twenty-two years before the declaration of Indepen-
dence, by all the delegates, excepting those from Connecticut,
who objected to the negative voice of the governor-general.

One circumstance, in the history of this plan, deserves here to
be recorded, as evincing the dawning spirit of the revolution.
Although the plan was rejected by the provincial assemblies,
they declared, without reserve, that, if it were adopted, they
would undertake to defend themselves from the French, without
assistance from Great Britain. They required but to be left to
employ their supplies in their own way, to effect their security
and predominance.

The mother country was too jealous to trust such powers with
the Americans ; but she proposed another plan, designed to lay
a foundation for the perpetual dependence and slavery of the
colonies. This plan was, that the governors, with one or more
of their council, should form a convention to concert measures
for the general defence, to erect fortifications, raise men, &c.
&c, with power to draw upon the British treasury, to defray all
charges ; which charges should be reimbursed by taxes upon the
colonies, imposed by acts of parliament. But to allow the British
government the right of taxation — to lay the colonies under the
obligations of a debt to be thus liquidated — to subject themselves
to the rapacity of king's collectors, we scarcely need say, was a
proposal which met with universal disapprobation.

6. Early in the spring of 1755, preparations were
made, by the colonies, for vigorous exertions against the
enemy. Four expeditions were planned: — one against
the French in Nova Scotia ; a second against the French
on the Ohio ; a third against Crown Point ; and a fourth
against Niagara.

7. The expedition against Nova Scotia, consisting of
three thousand men, chiefly from Massachusetts, was
led by Gen. Monckton and Gen. Winslow. With these
troops, they sailed from Boston, May 20th, and on the
1st of June, arrived at Chignecto, in the bay of Fundy.
After being joined by three hundred British troops, and
a small train of artillery, they proceeded against Fort
Beau Sejour, which, after four days' investment, surren-
dered. The name of the fort was now changed to that
of Cumberland. From this place Gen. Monckton pro-
ceeded far her into the country, took other forts in pos-

130 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

session of the French, and disarmed the inhabitants.
By this successful expedition, the English possessed
themselves of the whole country of Nova Scotia, a part
of which, as already noticed, (Sec. 2,) the French claim-
ed : its tranquillity was restored, and placed upon a per-
manent basis.

In this whole expedition, the English lost but twenty men.
Large quantities of provisions and military stores fell into their
hands, with a number of valuable cannon.

The French force in Nova Scotia being subdued, a difficult
question occurred, respecting the disposal of the inhabitants.
Fearing that they might join the French in Canada, whom they
had belore furnished with intelligence, quarters, and provisions,
it was determined to disperse them among the English colonies.
Under this order, one thousand nine hundred were thus dis-
persed.

8. The expedition against the French on the Ohio,
was led by Gen. Braddock, a British officer, who com-
menced his march from Virginia, in June, with about
two thousand men. Apprehensive that Fort du Quesne,
against which he was proceeding, might be reinforced,
Braddock, with one thousand two hundred selected
troops, hastened his march, leaving Col. Dunbar to fol-
low more slowly, with the other troops and the heavy
Daggage.

On the 8th of July, Braddock had advanced sixty
miles forward of Col. Dunbar, and within twelve or four-
teen miles of Fort du Quesne. Here he was advised by
his officers to proceed with caution, and was earnestly
entreated by Col. Washington, his aid, to permit him to
precede the army, and guard against surprise. Too
haughty and self-confident to receive advice, Braddock,
without any knowledge of the condition of the enemy,
continued to press towards the fort. About twelve
o'clock, July 0th, when within seven miles of the fort,
he was suddenly attacked by a body of French and In-
dians. Although the enemy did not exceed five hun-
dred, yet, after an action of three hours, Braddock, un-
der whom five horses had been killed, was mortally

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 131

wounded, and his troops defeated. The loss of the Eng-
lish army was sixty-four out of eighty-five officers, and
nearly half the privates.

This unfortunate defea of Gen. Brad dock is to be ascribed to
his imprudence and too daring intrepidity. Had he attended to
those precautions which were recommended to him, he would not
have been thus ambuscaded ; or had he wisely retreated from a
concealed enemy, and scoured the thicket with his cannon, the
melancholy catastrophe might have been avoided. But, obstinate-
ly riveted to the spot on which he was first attacked, he vainly
continued his attempt to form his men in regular order, although,
by this means, a surer prey to the enemy, until, being himself
wounded, he could no longer be accessary to the destruction of
human life.

A remarkable fact in the history of this affair remains to be
told. Gen. Braddock held the provincial troops in great contempt.
Consequently, he kept the Virginians, and other provincials, who
were in the action, in the rear. Yet, although equally exposed
with the rest, far from being affected with the fears that disorder-
ed the regular troops, they stood firm and unbroken, and, under
Colonel Washington, covered the retreat of the regulars, and
saved them from total destruction.

The retreat of the army, after Braddock was wounded, was
precipitate. No pause was made until the rear division was met.
This division, on its junction with the other, was seized with the
same spirit of flight with the retreating, and both divisions pro-
ceeded to Fort Cumberland, a distance of nearly one hundred and
twenty miles from the place of action.

Had the troops, even here, recovered their spirits and returned,
success might still have crowned the expedition. At least, the
army might have rendered the most important service to the
cause, by preventing the devastations and innuman murders, per
petrated by the French and Indians, during the summer, on the
western borders of Virginia and Pennsylvania. But, instead of
adopting a course so salutary and important, Col. Dunbar, leav-
ing the sick and wounded at Cumberland, marched with his troops
to Philadelphia.

9. The expedition against Crown Point was led by
Gen. William Johnson, a member of the council of New
York ; and although it failed as to its main object, yet its
results diffused exultation through the American colo-
nies, and dispelled the gloom which followed Braddock's
defeat.

The army under Johnson arrived at the south end of Lake
George the latter part of August. While here, intelligence wag

132 peripd iv. — 1756 to 1775.

received that a body of the enemy, two thousand in number, had
landed at Southbay, now Whitehall,, under command of Baron
Dieskau, and were marching towards Fort Edward, for the pur
pose of destroying the provisions and military stores there.

At a council of war, held on the morning of September 8th, it
was resolved to detach a party to intercept the French and save
the fort. This party consisted of twelve hundred men, com-
manded by Col. Ephraim Williams, of Deerfield, Massachusetts.
Unfortunately, this detachment was surprised by Dieskau, who
was lying in ambush for them. After a most signal slaughter,
in which Col. Williams, and Hendrick, a renowned Mohawk
sachem, and many other officers, fell, the detachment was obliged
to retreat.

The firing was heard in the camp of Johnson ; and, as it seemed
to approach nearer and nearer, it was naturally conjectured that
the English troops were repulsed. The best preparations which
the time allowed, were made to receive the advancing foe.
Dieskau, with his troops, soon appeared, and commenced a spirited
attack. They were received, however, with so much intrepidity
— the cannon and musketry did so much execution among their
ranks — that the enemy retired in great disorder, having expe-
rienced a signal defeat. The loss of the French was not lesa
than seven hundred killed, and three hundred wounded : this
loss was rendered still more severe to the French by a mortal
wound which Dieskau himself received, and in consequence of
which he fell into the hands of the English. The loss of the
English did not much exceed two hundred.

Few events, of no greater magnitude, leave stronger impres-
sions than resulted from the battle of Lake George. Following,
as it did, the discomfiture of Braddock, it served to restore the
honor of the British arms, and the tone of the public mind.

At the time it was meditated to send a detachment, under Col
Williams, to intercept Dieskau, the number of men proposed
was mentioned to Hendrick, the Mohawk chief, and his opinion
asked. He replied, " If they are to fight, they are too few. If
they are to be killed, they are too many." The number was ac-
cordingly increased. Gen. Johnson proposed also to divide the
detachment into three parties. Upon this, Hendrick took three
sticks, and, putting them together, said to him, " Put these togeth-
er, and you cannot break them ; take them one by one, and you
will break them easily." The hint succeeded, and Hendrick'a
sticks saved many of the party, and probably the whole army,
from destruction.

Among the wounded of the French, as already stated, was the
Baron Dieskau. He had received a ball through his leg, and,
being unable to follow his retreating army, was found by an Eng-
lish soldier resting upon the stump of a tree, with scarcely an
attendant. Dieskau, apprehensive for his safety, was feeling for

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. lo\)

his watch, in order to give it to the soldier, when the man, sus-
pecting that he was feeling for a pistol, levelled his gun, and
wounded him in the hips. He was carried to the camp, and treated
with great kindness. From the camp he was removed to Albany
and New Yoik, whence, some time after, he sailed for England,
where he died. He was a superior officer, possessed of honora
ble feelings, and adorned with highly polished manners. One
stain, however, attaches to his character. Before his engage-
ment with Col. Williams's corps, he gave orders to his troops
neither to give nor take quartef.

10. The expedition against Niagara was committed
to Gov. Shirley, of Massachusetts, whose force amounted
to two thousand five hundred men. But the season was
too far advanced before his preparations were completed,
to effect any thing of importance. After proceeding to
Oswego, on Lake Ontario, the army being poorly sup-
plied with provisions, and the rainy season approaching,
the expedition was abandoned, and the troops returned
to Albany. Thus ended Uie campaign of 1755.

11. In the spring of the ensuing year, 1756, Gov.
Shirley was succeeded in command by Gen. Abercrom-
bie, until the arrival of the Earl of Loudon, commander-
in-chief of all his majesty's forces in America.

The hostilities of the two preceding years had been
carried on without any formal proclamation of war ; but
this year, June 9th, as already stated, war was declared
by Great Britain against France, and, soon after, by
France against Great Britain, in turn.

The plan of operations for the campaign of '56 em-
braced the attack of Niagara and Croicn Point, which
were still in possession of the French. Both these places
were of great importance ; the former being the connect-
ing link in the line of fortifications between Canada and
Louisiana ; and the latter commanding Lake Cham«
plain, and guarding the only passage, at that time, into
Canada. But, important as were these posts, the reduc-
tion of neither was this year accomplished, nor even at-
tempted, owing, chiefly, to the great delays of those
who held the chief command.
12

134 period iv.— 1756 to 1775.

Troops were raised for the expedition againct Crown Point
amounting to seven thousand, the command of whom was as-
signed to Maj. Gen. Winslow,of Massachusetts. But his march
was delayed by obstacles ascribed to the improvidence of Aber-
crombie.

After the mortal wound received by Dieskau, at the
battle of Lake George, the Marquis de Montcalm, an
able and enterprising officer, succeeded to the command
of the French forces. In 'the month of August, this
officer, with eight thousand regulars, Canadians and In-
dians, invested the fort at Oswego, on the south side of
Lake Ontario, — one of the most important posts held
by the English in America, — and in a few days took it.
On the receipt of this intelligence, Lord Loudon, who
had arrived at Albany, and entered upon the command,
despatched orders to Gen. Winslow, on his march towards
Crown Point, not to proceed.

The fall of the fort at Oswego was most unfortunate for the
English ; and their loss of men made prisoners, and munitions of
war, peculiarly severe. By the capture of this post, the enemy
obtained the entire command of the lakes Ontario and Erie, and
of the whole country of the Five Nations. Sixteen hundred men
were made prisoners, and one hundred and twenty pieces of
cannon were taken, with fourteen mortars, two sloops of war,
and two hundred boats and batteaux.

After this disastrous event, all offensive operations
were immediately relinquished, although it was then
three months to the time of the usual decampment of
the army. Thus, through the inactivity of a man whose
leading trait was indecision, not one object of the cam-
paign was gained, nor one purpose accomplished,
either honorable or important.

12. Notwithstanding the failure of the campaign of
this season, the British parliament made great prepara-
tions to prosecute the war the succeeding year, 1757.
In July, an armament of eleven ships of the line and
fifty transports, with more than six thousand troops, ar-
rived at Halifax, destined for the reduction of Louisburg.
The colonies had been raising men for an expedition
against Ticonderocra and Crown Point. Great was then

FRENCH AND LNDIAxNf WAR. 135

mortification and disappointment, when they learned
from the orders of Lord Loudon, that these troops were
to be employed against Louisburg. Such inconstancy and
fluctuation appeared beneath the dignity of the com-
mander-in-chief. But they were obliged to submit; and
Lord Loudon proceeded to join the armament at Halifax.

So dilatory were their measures, however, that, before
they were ready to sail, Louisburg was reinforced by a
fleet of seventeen sail, and with troops to make it nine
thousand strong. On the reception of this intelligence,
it was deemed inexpedient to proceed, and the expedi-
tion was abandoned.

13. While weakness and indecision were marking
the counsels of the English, the French continued to
urge on their victories. Montcalm, still commander of
the French in the north, finding the troops withdrawn
from Halifax for the reduction of Louisburg, seized the
occasion to make a descent on Fort William Henry,
situated on the north shore of Lake George. The oar-
rison of the fort consisted of three thousand men. With
a force of nine thousand men, Montcalm laid siege to it.
After a gallant defence of six days, the garrison surren-
dered, thus giving to Montcalm the command of the
lake, and of the western frontier.

The spirited and protracted defence of the fort, against such
numbers, reflects the highest honor upon its brave commander,
Col. Munroe. Six days was the enemy kept at bay, with unabat-
ed resolution, in full expectation of assistance from Gen. Webb,
who lay at Fort Edward, only fifteen miles distant, with an army
of four thousand men.

The character of Gen. Webb continues sullied by his unpar-
donable indifference to the perilous situation of his brethren in
an is at Fort William Henry. It deserves to be known, that Sir
William Johnson, after very importunate solicitations, obtained
leave of Gen. Webb to march, with as many as would volunteer
in the service, to the relief of Munroe.

At the beat of the drums, the provincials, almost to a man,
saHied forth, and were soon ready and easrer for'the march. Af-
*er being under arms almost all day, what were their feelings
when Sir William, returning from head-quarters, informed them
that Gen. Webb had forbidden them to march !

13G period it. — 1756 to 1775.

The soldiers were inexpressibly mortified and enraged, and
their commander did himself no common honor in the tears ha
shed, as he turned from his troops, and retired to his tent.

The defence of Fort William Henry was so gallant, that Col.
Monroe, with his troops, was admitted to an honorable eapitula-
tion. The capitulation, however, was most shamefully broken.
While the troops were marching out at the gate of the fort, the
Indians, attached to Montcalm's party, dragged the men from
UVir ranks, and. with all the inhumanity of savage feeling,
plundered them of their baggage, and butchered them in cold
Out of a New Hampshire corps of two hundred, eighty
were missing.

It is said that efforts were made by the French to restrain the
barbarians : but the truth of the assertion may well be doubted,
when it is considered that Montcalm's force was at least seven
thousand French, and yet these barbarians were not restrained.

14. In 175S. most fortunately for the honor of the
British arms, and for the salvation of the colonies, a
change took place in the ministry of England. The
celebrated Pitt, Lord Chatham, now placed at the head
of the administration, breathed a new soul into the Brit-
ish councils, and revived the energies of the colonies,
weakened and exhausted by a series of ill-contrived and
unfortunate expeditions. The tide of success now
turned in favor of the English, who continued, with some
few exceptions, to achieve one victory after another, un-
til the whole of Canada surrendered to the British arms.

Pitt, upon coming into office, addressed a circular to
the colonial governors, in which he assured them of the
determination of the ministry to send a laroe force to
America, and called upon them to raise as many troops
as the "number of inhabitants would allow. The colonies
were prompt and liberal in furnishing the requisite sup-
plies. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hamp-
shire, unitedly, raised fifteen thousand men, who were
*eady to take the field in May.

15. Three expeditions were proposed : — the Jirst
against Louisburg : the second against Ticonderoga ; the
third against Fort du Quesne.*

1(3. On the expedition against Louisburg, Admiral

* Pronounced Du-Kane.

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 137

Boscawen sailed from Halifax, May 28th, with a fleet of
twenty ships of the line, eighteen frigates, and an army
of fourteen thousand men, under the command of Brig
Gen. Amhe'rst, next to whom in command was Gen.
Wolfe. On the 26th of July, after a vigorous resistance,
this fortress was sifrrendered, and with it five thousand
seven hundred and* thirty-seven prisoners of war, and
one hundred and twenty cannon, besides which the en-
emy lost five ships of the line and four frigates. At the
same time, Isle Royal, St. Johns, with Cape Breton,
fell into the hands of the English, who now became
masters of the coast from the St. Lawrence to Nova
Scotia.

The surrender of this fortress was a more signal loss to France
than any which she had sustained since the commencement of
the war. It greatly obstructed her communications with Cana-
da, and was powerfully instrumental in hastening the subjuga-
tion of that country to the British crown.

17. The expedition against Ticondcroga was conduct-
ed by Gen. Abercrombie, commander-in-chief in Ameri-
ca, Lord Loudon having returned to England. An
army of sixteen thousand men, nine thousand of whom
were provincials, followed his standard, besides a for-
midable train of artillery.

Having passed Lake George, the army proceeded with
great difficulty towards the fortress. Unfortunately,
Gen. Abercrombie trusted to others, who were incompe
tent to the task, to reconnoitre the ground and intrench-
cnents of the enemy, and, without a knowledge of the
strength of the places, or of the proper points of attack,
issued his orders to attempt the lines without bringing
up a single piece of artillery.

The army advanced to the charge with the greatest
intrepidity, and for more than four hours maintained the
attack with incredible obstinacy.

After the loss of nearly two thousand in killed and
wounded, the troops were summoned away. The retreat
was as unhappy as the attack had been precipitate and
12*

138 period iv.— 1756 to 1775.

ill-advised. Not a doubt can rationally exist, that, had
the siege been prosecuted with prudence and vigor, the re-
duction of the place would have been easily accomplished
without so great a waste of human life, as the garrison
amounted to but little more than three thousand men.

The passage of Abercrombie across Lake George, on his way
with his army to Ticonderoga, was effected by means of one
thousand and thirty-five boats. The splendor of the military
parade on the occasion was eminently imposing, and deserves to
be recorded. A late writer, Dr. Dwight, thus describes it : —

'; The morning was remarkably bright and beautiful ; and the
fleet moved with exact regularity to the sound of fine martial
music. The ensigns waved and glittered in the sun-beams, and
the anticipation of future triumph shone in every eye. Above,
beneath, around, the scenery was that of enchantment. Rarely
has the sun, since that luminary was first lighted up in the
heavens, dawned on such a complication of beauty and magnifi-
cence." How greatly did all the parade which was displayed,
and all the anticipation which was indulged, add to the mortifi-
cation of the defeat which followed !

After his repulse, Gen. Abercrombie retired to his
former quarters on Lake George. Here, anxious in any
way to repair the mischief and disgrace of defeat, he
consented, at the solicitation of Col. Bradstreet. to de-
tach him, with three thousand men, against Fort Fron-
tenac, on the north-west side of the outlet of Lake On-
tario. With these troops, mostly provincial, Bradstreet
sailed down the Ontario, landed within a mile of the
fort, opened his batteries, and, in two days, forced this
important fortress to surrender. Nine armed vessels,
sixty cannon, sixteen mortars, and a vast quantity of
ammunition, &c. &*c. fell into his hands.

>8. To dispossess the French at Fort du Qucsne, the
bulwark of their dominion over the western rep-ions, was
a third expedition contemplated this year. This en-
terprise was intrusted to Gen. Forbes, who left Phi-
ladelphia, in July, but did not arrive at du Quesne
till late in November. The force collected for' the at-
tack amounted to eight thousand effective men. An
attack, however, was needless, the fort having been de-

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 139

eerted by the garrison the evening before the arrival of the
army. On taking quiet possession of the place, Forbes,
in honor of Mr. Pitt, called it Pittsburg.

Notwithstanding the defeat of Ticonderoga, the cam-
paign closed with honor to the colonies, and to the na-
tion in general. The successes of the year prepared
the way for the still greater achievements of the ensu-
ing year.

19. Another event of this year concurred in bringing
to pass the fortunate issues of the next. This was a
treaty of peace and friendship with the Indian nations
inhabiting between the Apalachian mountains, the Al-
leganies, and the lakes. This treaty was concluded at
Easton, sixty miles from Philadelphia.

The managers of the treaty on the part of Great Britain, were
the governors of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Sir William
Johnson, fur members of the c uncil of Pennsylvania, six mem-
bers of assembly, and two agents from New Jersey.

The tribes represented on this occasion, and with which the
treaty was made, were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagoes, Ca
yugas, Senecas, Tuscaroras, Nanticoques, and Conays, theTute-
loes, Chugnuts, Delawares, Unamies, Minisinks, Mohicans, and
Wappingers. The whole number of Indians, including women
and children, present, amounted to five hundred.

20. The campaign of 1759 had for its object the en-
tire conquest of Canada. For this purpose, it was de-
termined, that three powerful armies should enter Cana-
da by different routes, and attack, at nearly the same
time, all the strong holds of the French in that country.
These were Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Niagara
and Quebec.

21. Gen. Amherst, who had succeeded Abercrombie
as commander-in-chief, led one division against Ticon-
deroga, which he reached July 22d. This fortress soon
surrendered, the principal part of the garrison having re-
tired to Crown Point. Having strengthened Ticonde-
roga, the army next proceeded against this latter place,
and took quiet possession of it, the enemy having fled
before their arrival.

140 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

The French retired to the Isle aux Noix, situated at the north-
ern extremity of Lake Champlain, where they were strongly en-
camped, with a force of three thousand five hundred men, and a
powerful artillery. Gen. Amherst designed to follow up his suc-
cesses against them in that quarter; but the want of a suitable
naval armament prevented.

22. The second division of the army, commanded by
Gen. Prideaux, was destined against Niagara, at which
place they arrived July 6th, without loss or opposition.
The place was immediately invested : on the 24th of the
month, a general battle took place, which decided the
fate of Niagara, and placed it in the hands of the Eng-
lish.

Four days previous to this battle, that able and distinguished
officer, Gen. Prid«aux, was killed by the bursting of a cohorn.
The command devolved on Sir William Johnson, who success-
fully put in execution the plans of his lamented predecessor.

23. While the English ti oops were achieving these
important victories in Upper Canada, Gen. Wolfe was
prosecuting the most important enterprise of the cam-
paign, viz. the reduction of Quebec. Embarking at
Louisburg with eight thousand men, under convoy of
Acfrnirals Saunders and Holmes, he landed with his
troops, in June, on the island of Orleans, a little below

z Quebec.

After several attempts to reduce the place, which
proved unsuccessful, Wolfe conceived the project of as-
cending, with his troops, a precipice of from 150 to 200
feet, by which he would reach the plains of Abraham,
lying south and west of the city, and thus gain access to
the enemy, in a less fortified spot.

This ascent he effected with his army, and ere Mont-
calm, the French general, was aware of it, the army had
formed on the heights of Abraham, and were prepared
for battle.

Here, on the morning of the 13th of September, Wolfe
met the French army under Montcalm, and, after a se-
vere and bloody contest, in which both these brave com-
manders fell, victory decided in favor of the English.

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 141

A thousand prisoners were taken, and a thousand of the
enemy were killed. The loss of the English, in killed
and wounded, did not exceed six hundred. Five days
after, the city capitulated : the inhabitants were to enjoy
their civil and religious rights, and remain neutral dur-
ing the war The city was garrisoned under the com-
mand of Gen, Murray.

Determined from the first to take the place, impregnable as it
was accounted, the measures of Gen. Wolfe were singularly
bold, and apparently repugnant to all the maxims of war. His
attention was first drawn to Point Levi, on the southern bank of
the St. Lawrence, upon which, after taking possession of it, he
erected batteries. By means of these, he destroyed many houses ;
but from this point it was soon apparent that little impression
could be made upon the fortifications of the town.

Finding it impracticable tlms to accomplish his purpose, Wolfe
next decided on more daring measures. Fur the purpose of
drawing Montcalm to a general battle, Wolfe, with his troops,
crossed the river Montmorenci, and attacked the enemy in their
mtrenchments. Owing, however, to the grounding of some of
the boats which conveyed the troops, a part of the detachment
did not land so soon as the others. The corps that first landed,
without waiting to form, rushed forward impetuously towards
the enemy's intrenchments. But their courage proved their
ruin. A close and well-directed fire from the enemy cut them
down in great numbers.

Montcalm's party had now landed, and were drawn up on the
beach in order. But it was near night, a thunder-storm was ap-
proaching, and the tide was rapidly setting in. Fearing the con-
sequences of delay, Wolfe ordered a retreat across the Montmo-
renci, and returned to his quarters on the Isle of Orleans. In
this rencounter, his loss amounted to near six hundred of the
flower of his army.

The difficulties of effecting the conquest of Quebec now press-
ed upon Wolfe with all their force. But he knew the importance
of taking this strongest hold — he knew the expectations cf hia
countrymen — he well knew that no military conduct could shine
that was not jrilded with success.

Disappointed thus far, and worn down with fatigue and watch
ing, General Wolfe fell violently sick. Scarcely had he recover-
ed, before he proceeded to put in execution a plan which had been
matured on his sick bed. This was to proceed up the river, gain
the heights of Abraham, and draw Montcalm to a general engage-
ment.

Accordingly, the troops were transported up the river about
nine miles. On the 12th of Sept., one hour after midnight, Wolfe

142 period iv. — 1756 ro 1775.

and his troops left the ships, and in boats silently dropped down
the current, intending to land a league above Cape Diamond, and
there ascend the bank leading to the station he wished to gain.
Owing, however, to the rapidity of the river, they fell below the
intended place, and landed a mile, or a mile and a half, above
the city.

The operation was a critical one, as they had to navigate, in
silence, down a rapid stream, and to find a right place for landing,
which, amidst surrounding darkness, might be easily mistaken.
Besides this, the shore was shelving, and the bank so steep and
lofty, as scarcely to be ascended, even without opposition from an
enemy.

About an hour before day, the army began to ascend the preci-
pice, the distance of one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet,
almost perpendicular ascent, above which spread the plains of
Abraham. By day-light, Sept. 13th, this almost incredible enter-
prise had been effected — the desired station was attained, the army
was formed, and ready to meet the enemy.

To Montcalm, the intelligence that the English were occupy-
ing the Weights of Abraham was most surprising. The impossi-
bility of ascending the precipice he considered certain, and there-
fore had taken no measures to fortify its line. But no sooner was
he informed of the position of the English army, than, perceiving
a battle no longer to be avoided, he prepared to fight. Between
nine and ten o'clock, the two armies, about equal in numbers,
met face to face.

The battle now commenced. Inattentive to the fire of a body
of Canadians and Indians, one thousand five hundred of whom
Montcalm had stationed in the cornfields and bushes, Wolfe di-
rected his troops to reserve their fire for the main body of the
French, now rapidly advancing. On their approach within forty
yards, the English opened their fire, and the destruction became
immense.

The French fought bravely, but their ranks became disordered,
and, notwithstanding the repeated efforts of their officers to form
them, and to renew the attack, they were so successfully pushed
by the British bayonet, and hewn down by the Highland broad-
sword, that their discomfiture was complete.

During the action, Montcalm was on the French left, and Wolfe
on the English riirht, and here they both fell in the critical mo-
ment that decided the victory. Early in the battle, Wolfe re-
ceived a ball in his wrist; but, binding his handkerchief around it,
he continued to encourage his men. Shortly after, another ball
penetrated his groin ; but this wound, although much more se-
vere, he concealed, and continued to urge on the contest, till a
third bullet pierced his breast. He was now obliged, though re-
luctantly, to be carried to the rear of the line.

Gen. Monckton succeeded to the command, but was immedi

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 143

ately wounded, and conveyed away. In this critical state of the
action, the command devolved upon Gen. Townshend. Gen.
Montcalm, fighting in front of his battalion, received a mortal
wound about the same time, and Gen. Jennezergus, his seeond
in command, fell near his side.

Wolfe died in the field, before the battle was ended; but he
lived long enough to know that the victory was his. While
leaning on the shoulder of a lieutenant, who kneeled to support
him, he was seized with the agonies of death : at this moment
was heard the distant sound, " They fly — they fly. The hero
raised his drooping head, and eagerly asked, " Who fly?" Be
ing told that it was the French — " Then," he replied, " I die
happy," and expired.

" This death," says Professor Silliman," has furnished a grand
and pathetic subject for the painter, the poet and the historian,
and, undoubtedly 'considered as a specimen of mere military glory,
it is one of the most sublime that the annals of war afford."

Montcalm was every way worthy of being the competitor of
Wolfe. In talents, in military skill, in. personal courage, he was
not his inferior. JNfor was his death much less sublime. He liv-
ed to be carried to the city, where his last moments were employed
in writing, with his own hand, a letter to the English general,
recommending the French prisoners to his care and humanity.
When informed that his wound was mortal, he replied, " I shall
not then live to see the surrender of Quebec."

24. The capture of Quebec, which soon followed,
important as it was, did not immediately terminate the
war. The French in Canada had still a powerful army,
and some naval force above the city.

25. In the ensuing spring, 1760, Monsieur Levi ap-
proached Quebec, from Montreal, assisted by six frigates,
for the purpose of recovering it from the English. Gen.
Murray, who commanded the English garrison, marched
to meet him, with only three thousand men ; and, on the
2Sth of April, after a bloody battle, fought at Sillsery,
three miles above the city, the English army was defeat-
ed, with the loss of one thousand men, the French hav-
ing iost more than double that number.

The English retreated to Quebec, to which the French
now laid siege. About the middle of May, an English
squadron arrived with reinforcements, soon after which
the French fleet was taken and destroyed, and the siege
was raised.

144 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

26. The attention of the English commander-in-chief,
Gen. Amherst, was now directed to the reduction of
Montreal, the last fortress of consequence in the posses-
sion of the French*. To effect this, he detached Col.
Haviland, with a well-disciplined army, to proceed to
Lake George, Crown Point, and Lake Champlain ;
Gen. Murray was ordered from Quebec, with such forces
as could be spared from the garrison, while Gen. Am-
herst himself proceeded, with ten thousand men, by Lake
Ontario, down the river St. Lawrence.

Generals Amherst and Murray arrived at Montreal the
same day, Sept. 6th, and were joined by Haviland on
the day succeeding. While preparing to lay siege to
the place, the commander of Montreal, M. de Vaudreuil,
perceiving that resistance would be ineffectual, demand-
ed a capitulation. On the 8th, Montreal, Detroit, Mich-
ilimackinac, and all the other places within the govern-
ment of Canada, were surrendered to his Britannic ma-
jesty.

27. Thus ended a war which, from the first hostilities,
had continued six years, and during which much dis-
tress had been experienced, and many thousand valuable
lives lost. Great and universal was the joy that spread
through the colonies, at the successful termination of a
contest so long and severe, and public thanksgivings
were generally appointed, to ascribe due honor to Him
who had preserved to the colonies their existence and
liberties.

28. While the troops were employed in the conquest
of Canada, the colonies of Virginia and South Carolina
suffered invasion and outrage from the Cherokees, a
powerful tribe of savages on the west. But, in 1761,
they were signally defeated by Col. Grant, and compel-
led to sue for peace.

Intelligence being communicated to Gen. Amherst of the dan-
ger of these colonies, he despatched Gen. Montgomery, with one
thousand two hundred men, for their protection and relief.

Being joined by the forces of the province of Carolina on his
arrival, he immediately proceeded into the country of the Chero-

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 145

kees, plundering and destroying their villages and magazines of
corn. In revenge, the savages besieged Fort Loudon, on the
confines of Virginia, which was obliged, by reason of famine, to
capitulate. The capitulation was, however, broken, and the
troops, while on their march to Virginia, were assaulted, numbers
of them killed, and the rest taken captive.

The next year, 1761, Gen. Montgomery being obliged to re-
turn, Col. Grant was sent to continue the war. With an army
of near two thousand six hundred men, he began his march to-
wards the enemy's country. On the fourth day, the army fell in
with a body of savages, and, after a strongly-contested battle, put
them to flight. Following up this victory, Col. Grant proceeded
to destroy their magazines, burn their cornfields, and consume
their settlements, until, having effectually routed them, he re-
turned with his troops. Soon after this, the Cherokee chiefs
came in, and a peace was concluded.

29. The conquest of Canada having been achieved
in 1763, a definitive treaty, the preliminaries of which
had been settled the year before, was signed at Paris,
and soon after ratified by the kings of England and
France ; by which all Nova Scotia, Canada, the isle of
Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river
St. Lawrence, were ceded to the British crown.

NOTES.

30. Manners of the Colonists. The change in
respect to manners in the colonies, during this period,
consisted chiefly in a gradual wearing away of national
distinctions and peculiarities, and a tendency to a stiH
greater unity and assimilation of character. The rapid
increase of wealth, and the frequency of intercourse with
Europe, began to introduce among the colonies the
tastes, and fashions, and luxuries, of European countries.
But the introduction of them produced little enervation
of character among the people of America. Such an
effect was counteracted by the bloody but successful
war with the French and Indians, and the boundless
prosperity which seemed to open to the country, and call
forth its energies. Instead, therefore, of a growing
weakness in the colonies, we perceive a more vigorous
13

146 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

spirit of commercial enterprise pervading the country ;
a consciousness of political importance becoming con-
firmed ; and a deep and ardent love of civil liberty
breathing over the land.

31. Religion. The only religious sect introduced
into America, during this period, was that of the Sha-
kers, or Shaking Quakers, who arrived from England in
1774, and settled at Niskayuna, near Albany.

Although the spirit of religious intolerance had disappeared
from the colonies, and the Puritanical severity of the north had
become much softened, yet, until the commencement of the
French and Indian war, the religious character of the colonies
had remained essentially the same. But dufing this war. infi-
delity was extensively introduced into the army, by means of the
foreign English officers and soldiers who were sent into the
country. From the army it spread itself into society, and pro-
duced a considerable relaxation of morals, and a looser adhe-
rence to correct principle.

32. Trade and Commerce. During this period,
trade and commerce made great advances ; the annual
amount of imports from Great Britain was about two
and a half millions of pounds sterling, from 1756 to
1771; from 1771 to 1773, it was three millions and a
half annually, on an average. The annual amount of
exports of the colonies to Great Britain and elsewhere,
was about four million pounds sterling, at the close of
this period. The articles of export, and the nature of
the trade of the colonies, were essentially the same as
stated in the Notes to Period III.

In 1769, the number of ships employed by Great Britain and
the colonies, in the trade with the colonies, was one thousand
and seventy-eight, manned by twenty-eight thousand nine hun
dred and ten seamen.

The whale and other fisheries in the colonies had become of
great importance. In 1775, there were employed in the fishery
generally, and in carrying the fish to market from New England,
one thousand four hundred and fifty vessels of all descriptions,
of one hundred thousand tons burthen, and eleven thousand
fishermen and seamen.

33. Agriculture. During this period, a gradual
progress was made in agriculture ; but it does not need
flnv specific notice.

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 147

34. Arts and Manufactures. Great Britain still
continued to oppose the progress of arts and manufac-
tures in the colonies, and, therefore, there was but a
moderate advance of these interests during this period.

35. Population.. At the close of this period, the
white and black population of the colonies did not vary
greatly from three millions.

36. Education. In the year 1769, the college at
Hanover, New Hampshire, was founded, and called
Dartmouth College, in honor of the Earl of Dartmouth,
who was one of its principal benefactors.

In 1770, the university in Rhode Island, called
Brown University , was established at Providence. It
was incorporated in 1764, and first located at Warren.
At this place the first commencement was held, 1769.

REFLECTIONS.

37. The preceding short period of our history presents several
interesting subjects of reflection. The American colonies be-
came the theatre of a bloody conflict, attended by all the appal-
ling features of savage war. Although feebly supported by Eng-
land, and embarrassed by the want of political union, they sur-
mounted every obstacle, and compelled the French, their ene-
mies, to depart from their shores forever.

But no sooner was this conflict ended, than they began to feel,
with added weight, the hand of British oppression. Not hum-
bled, however, by injustice, nor crushed by severities, they
vigorously put forth their strength in commerce, trade, and
agriculture. They spread innumerable sails upon the ocean;
they converted forests into meadows and wheat-fields ; estab-
lished seminaries of learning ; founded cities; and built churches
to God.

Nay, more — we see that those very steps which were taken by
the mother country to cripple the American colonies, were so
ordered, as to add to their strength. By leaving them to bear
the war of 175(5 almost alone, she showed them that they could
not expect defence from her; she taught them the necessity of
relying upon their own energies ; gave them an opportunity to
learn the art of war, and to ascertain their own strength.

The long line of British acts, designed to crush the colonies, and
to keep them in humble subjection, passed, as they were, in wil-
ful ignorance of the feelings and power of America, awakened

148 period iv. — 1756 to 1775.

the spirit of the revolution, and laid the foundation of a great
nation.

What a lesson may tyranny gather from this ! And how thank-
ful should ive be, that a just Providence is above, who regards
the affairs of men — who turns aside the trampling heel of op-
pression, and causes the blood wrung out by tyranny to cry fiorn
the ground, and to call forth the spirit of liberty !

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD V.

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.

Extending from the Commencement of Hostilities by
Great Britain, against the American Colonies, in the
Battle of Lexington, 1775, to the Disbanding of the
American Army, at West Point, 1783.

Sec. 1. On the 19th of April, 1775, was shed at Lex-
ington, Massachusetts, the first blood in the war of the
revolution ; a war which terminated in the separation
of the American colonies from Great Britain, and in
their change, from this humble character and condition,
to that of free and independent states.

2. The causes which led the colonies to take up arms
against the mother country, deserve a distinct recital in
this portion of our history, as they will clearly show the
justice, the wisdom, and the necessity, of those acts of
resistance, to which, at that trying period, resort was had.

" The independence of America," it has been ob-
served, " was found by those who sought it not." When
the fathers of this country left Great Britain, they had
no intention of establishing a government independent
of that of England. On the contrary, they came out
as colonists, and expected still to acknowledge allegiance
to the mother country. For many years, when they
spoke, or wrote, or thought, of England, it was under
the filial and affectionate idea of " home" " And even
13*

150 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

at the commencement of the controversy with Greal
Britain," if we credit those who lived at that time,
" there existed no desire, nor intention, of becoming in
dependent.''

For these feelings of affection for the mother country, the col
onies deserve the highest encomium. Causes existed which
might have justified a less degree of attachment, and were cal-
culated to produce it. These were the oppression and losses
which they endured ; the shackles imposed upon them ; the re-
straints upon their commerce ; the parsimony with which aid
was administered by the mother country ; the maladminis-
tration ; the peculation and arbitrary conduct of the royal gov-
ernors ; — these things were sufficient, and more than sufficient,
to stifle every feeling of affection, and shake the last remains
of their allegiance.

Yet through all this oppressive subordination ; through the
calamities of war ; through the attempt to wrest from them their
charters, and their dearest rights, — they could say, and did say,
" England, with all thy faults, I love thee still."

Nor is it probable that these friendly dispositions of the colo-
nies would at this time have been withdrawn, had not Great
Britain interrupted them by a grievous change of policy towards
the inhabitants, touching the subject of revenue and taxation.

3. Before the peace of '63, the subject of taxation had
been wisely let alone. The colonies had been permit-
ted to tax themselves, without the interference of the par-
liament. But from and after this period, the ancient sy -
tem was set aside, and a different and oppressive policy
adopted. The first act, the avowed purpose of which
was a revenue from the colonies, passed the parliament,
September 29th, 1764, the preamble to which began
thus — " Whereas it is just and necessary that a revenue
be raised in America, for defraying the expenses of de-
fending, protecting, and securing the same, we the com-
mons," &c. The act then proceeds to lay a duty on
" clayed sugar, indigo, coffee, &,c. &c, being the produce
of a colony not under the dominion of his majesty."

4. This act the colonies could not approve. They
could not approve of it, because it recognized the ex-
istence of a right to tax them — a right not founded ira
justice, and which, since their existence, nearly one hun-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 151

dred and fifty years, had, until now, seldom been named.
But the colonies could submit to it, although unpleasant
and unjust ; nor would this act alone have led to perma-
nent disaffection, had it not been followed by other acts,
still more unjust and oppressive.

On the subject of the right of the British parliament to tax the
colonies, it was asserted, in the mother country, " to be essential
to the unity, and of course to the prosperity, of the empire, that
the British parliament should have a right of taxation over every
part of the royal dominions." In the colonies, it was contend-
ed, " that taxation and representation were inseparable, and that
they could not be safe, if their property might be taken from them
without their consent." This claim of the right of taxation on
the one side, and the denial of it on the other, was the very hinge
on ichich the revolution turned.

5. In accordance with the policy to be observed to-
wards America, the next year, 1765, the famous stamp
act passed both houses of parliament. This ordained
that instruments of writing, such as deeds, bonds, notes,
&c, among the colonies, should be null and void, unless
executed on stamped paper, for which a duty should be
paid to the crown.

When this bill was brought in, the ministers, and particularly
Charles Townshend, exclaimed : —

" These Americans, our own children, planted by our care,
nourished by our indulgence, protected by our arms, until they
are grown to a good degree of strength and opulence : will they
now turn their backs upon us, and grudge to contribute their
mite to relieve us from the heavy load which overwhelms us ?"

Col. Barre caught the words, and, with a vehemence becoming
a soldier, rose and said : —

" Planted by your care! No ! your oppression planted them in
America : they fled from your tyranny into a then uncultivated
land, where they were exposed to almost all the hardships to
which human nature is liable, and, among others, to the savage
cruelty of the enemy of the country, a people the most subtle,
and, I take upon me to say, the most*truly terrible of any peo-
ple that ever inhabited any part of God's earth ; and yet, ac-
tuated by principles of true English liberty, they met all these
hardships with pleasure, compared with those they suffered in
their own country, from the hands of those that should have
been their friends.

" They nourished by your indulgence ! They grew by your neg.
lect- as soon as you began to care about them, that care was ex.

152 period v.— 1775 to 1783

ercised in sending persons to rule over them in one department
and another, who were, perhaps, the deputies of the deputies of
some members of this house, sent to spy out their liberty, to mis-
represent their actions, and to prey upon them ; men whose be-
havior^ on many occasions, has caused the blood of these sons
of liberty to recoil within them ; men promoted to the highest
seats of justice, some of whom, to my knowledge, were glad, by
going to foreign countries, to escape the vengeance of the laws
ir their own.

" They protected by your arms ! They have nobly taken up arms
in your defence, have exerted their valor, amidst their constant
and laborious industry, for the defence of a country whose fron-
tiers while drenched in blood, its interior parts have yielded for
your enlargement the little savings of their frugality and the
fruits of their toils. And believe me, remember, I this day told you
so, that the same spirit which actuated that people at first, will
continue with them still."

The night after this act passed, Doctor Franklin, who was then
in London, wrote to Charles Thompson, afterwards secretary of
the continental congress, " The sun of liberty is set ; the Ameri-
cans must light the lamps of industry and economy." To which
Mr. Thompson answered, " Be assured we shall light torches quite
of another sort "—thus predicting the convulsions which were
about to follow.

6. On the arrival of the news of the stamp act in
America, a general indignation spread through the
country, and resolutions were passed against the act, by
most of the colonial assemblies.

The assembly of Virginia was the first public body that met,
after the news of the act reached America. Towards the close
of the session, five resolutions were introduced into the house of
burgesses, by Patrick Henry, a young man highly distinguished
for his moral courage and bold and manly eloquence. The first
four of these resolutions asserted the various rights and privileges
claimed by the colonists, and the fifth denied, in no doubtful terms,
the right of parliament to tax America.

The debate on these resolutions was animated, and even vio-
lent. Nothing like them had ever transpired in America. They
evinced a settled purpose of resistance, and conveyed to the
ministry of Great Britain'a lesson which, had they read witlv un-
prejudiced minds, might have saved them the fruitless struggle
of a seven years' war. There were those, in the house of bur-
gesses, who strongly opposed the resolutions ; but the bold and
powerful eloquence of Henry bore them down, and carried the
resolutions, though by a majority of only one. In the heat of the
debate, he boldly asserted, that the king had acted the part of &

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 15^

Ujriiut ; and alluding to the fate of other tyrants, he exclaimed,
" Ciesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and Georg«
III." — here pausing a moment till the cry of " Treason, treason,'
resounding from several parts of the house, had ended — he added
— " may profit by their example ; if this be treason, make the most
of it."

The next day, in the absence of Mr. Henry, the fifth resolution
was rescinded ; but that and the others had already gone forth
to the world • by the friends of freedom they were received with
enthusiasm, and served to raise still higher the justly indignant
feelings of a people whose rights were disregarded.

7. In June, Massachusetts recommended the meeting
of a colonial congress, to consult for the general safety.
The recommendation being well received by most of the
colonies, in October, twenty-eight members assembled
in New York, where they remonstrated against the stamp
act, and petitioned its repeal. At the same time, they
drew up a declaration of rights, in which taxation and
representation were declared to be inseparable.

This patriotic movement, on the part of the colony of Massa-
chusetts, was made prior to any intelligence of the proceedings
of Virginia, and was in accordance with the spirit of liberty
which early manifested itself in that province.

Three commissioners were appointed by Massachusetts to at
tend the proposed congress, and a circular was addressed to each
of the colonies, to appoint commissioners, for the same ptvrpose.
To this proposal, eight colonies acceded, viz. Rhode Island, Con
necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ma-
ryland, and South Carolina — commissioners from each of which
met those from Massachusetts at New York, on the first Tuesday
of October, 1765. This was the first general meeting of the
colonies. Timothy Ruggles, a commissioner from Massachusetts,
was chosen president.

In their declaration, they acknowledged their allegiance to his
majesty, and their willingness to render due honor to the right-
ful authority of parliament; but they claimed that they had in-
Uresis, rights, and liberties, as the natural born subjects of his
majesty ; and that, as they could not be represented in parliament,
that body had no right to impose taxes on them, without their
consent. They declared the stamp act, and other acts of parlia
ment, to have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and lib
erties of the colonists.

This congress adjourned on the 25th of October ; and their pro-
ceedings were approved by all the members, except Mr. Ruggles
of Massachusetts, and Mr Ogden of New Jersey, both of whom

154 period v. — 1775 to 1783.

left New York without signing the address and petitions. The
commissionersfromSouthCarolinaand Connecticut were limited
by their instructions to make report to their respective legisla
tares ; and the committee of New York, who had been admitted
as members, had no authority to apply to the king or parliament.
The address and petition were, therefore, signed by commission-
ers from six of the colonies only. The proceedings of the con-
gress were, however, afterwards sanctioned not only by the as-
semblies of South Carolina, Connecticut, and New York, but by
those of the colonies not therein represented.

8. The stamp act came into operation on the first day
of November. But on that day, not a single sheet of all
the bales of stamps, which had been sent from England,
could have been found in the colonies of New England,
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
the two Carolinas. They had either been committed to
the flames, had been reshipped to England, or were safe-
ly guarded by the opposition, into whose hands they had
fallen. A general suspension, or, rather, a total cessa-
tion of all business, which required stamped paper, was
the consequence. The printers of newspapers, only,
continued their occupation ; alleging for excuse, that if
they had done otherwise, the people would have given
them such" an admonition as they little coveted. None
would receive the gazettes coming from Canada, as they
were printed on stamped paper. The courts of justice
were shut ; even marriages were no longer celebrated ;
and, in a word, an absolute stagnation in all the relations
of social life was established.

It would scarcely be possible, by means of language, to con-
vey an adequate idea of the strong feelings of opposition to this
most odious act, which pervaded the friends of liberty in Ameri-
ca. As might be expected, these feelings were manifested in
various riotous proceedings, which scarcely admit of a full jus-
tification.

As early as the middle of August, on the morning of one day,
there were discovered two effigies hanging on the branch of an
old elm, in the southern part of Boston, one of which was de-
signed to represent a stamp officer — the other a jack-boot, out of
which rose a horned head, which appeared to look around. .

The novelty of the spectacle soon attracted a multitude to the
spot, which continued to increase all day. Towards evening

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 155

the effigies were taken down, placed on a bier, and carried in
funeral procession through several streets — a host following, and
shouting/'Liberty and property forever ! — no stamps !" At length,
arriving in front of a house, owned by one Oliver, which they
supposed was intended for a stamp office, they demolished it to
its very foundations.

From this, they proceeded to his dwelling, and, finding Oliver
had fled, they destroyed his fences, broke open the doors of his
dwelling, and greatly injured his furniture. On the following
day, apprehensive of a second visit from this lawless multitude,
Oliver gave public notice, that he had forwarded to England his
resignation as a stamp officer. This becoming known by the
populace, which had assembled to renew the last night's assault,
they gave three cheers to Oliver, and departed without doing
further damage.

The opposition of the friends of liberty in other places, was
manifested by proceedings of a similar kind.

9. About this time, associations were formed in all
the colonies, under the title of Sons of Liberty, the ob-
ject of which was, by every practicable means, to oppose
the unjust and arbitrary measures of the British govern-
ment. Added to this, societies were instituted, includ-
ing females as well as males, the members of which re-
solved to forego all the luxuries of life, rather than be
indebted to the commerce of England.

These societies denied themselves the use of all foreign arti-
cles of clothing : carding, spinning and weaving became the
daily employment of women of fashion : sheep were forbidden to
be used as food, lest there should not be found a sufficient supply
of wool ; and to be dressed in a suit of home-spun was to possess
the surest means of popular distinction. And so true were these
societies to their mutual compact, that the British merchants and
manufacturers soon began to feel the necessity of uniting with
the colonies in petitioning parliament for a repeal of the obnox-
ious law. Artificers and manufacturers in England were left
without employment, and thrown upon the charities of the pub-
lic ; for, even at that early day, this class of people were in a
great measure dependent on the colonial consumption for their
support. The warehouses of the merchants were, for the same
reason, filled with unsalable goods ; and the table of the minis-
ter was soon loaded with petitions and remonstrances from all
the large towns in the kingdom.

10. Fortunately for the interests both of the colonies
and of Great Britain, a change took place, about this

156 period v.— 1775 to 1733.

time, in the administration of England, by which several
of the friends of America came into power. The Mar-
quis of Rockingham was appointed first lord of the
treasury, in the room of Lord Grenville, and the Duke
of Grafton and Gen. Conway secretaries of state. To
this new ministry, it was obvious, that measures must be
taken either to repeal the odious statute, or to make
America submit by force of arms. The former being
deemed the wiser course, a motion was made in parlia-
ment to that effect. The debate on the question of re-
peal was long and angry. It was, however, at length
carried ; but only by accompanying the repealing act by
one called the declaratory act, the language of which
was, that parliament have, and of right ought to have,
power to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.

On the meeting of parliament, Jan. 7th, 1766, his majesty, in
his speech, spoke of the above opposition of the colonies to the
stamp act in terms of severe reprehension. On the usual mo-
tion for an address to the king, Mr. Pitt, the invariable friend of
the colonies, delivered his famous speech on American liberty,
m which he declared it to be his opinion that the kingdom
had no right to tax the colonies ; that he rejoiced that they had
resisted, and he hoped that they would resist to the last drop of
their blood.

On the 22d of February, General Conway introduced a motion
to repeal this act. The debate lasted until three o'clock in the
morning ; and never was there a debate which excited more
warmth of interest or more vehemence of opposition. The lob-
bies of the house were crowded with the manufacturers and
traders of the kingdom, whose anxious countenances plainly
showed that their fates hung upon the issue. A division at length
being called for, two hundred and seventy-five rose in support of
the motion, and one hundred and sixty-seven against it.

On learning this vote, the transports of the people were un
governable. Impressed with the conviction that they owed their
deliverance to Mr. Pitt, their gratitude knew no bounds : when
te appeared at the door, in the language, of Burke, '"they jump-
ed upon him, like children on along absent father. They clung
to him as captives about their redeemer. All England joined in
his applause." In the house of peers, the opposition to the motion
was still more obstinate. Some of the dukes, and the whole
bench of bishops, were for forcing the Americans to suomit, with
fire and sxcord. Opposition, however, was, at length, wearied

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 157

out ; and the motion to repeal was carried by a majority of thirty-
four, a compromise having been made by introducing the above
declaratory act.

11. The satisfaction of the colonies, on the repeal of
the stamp act, was sincere and universal. Elevated with
the idea of having removed an odious and oppressive
burden, and believing, notwithstanding the declaratory
act of parliament, that the right of taxing the colonies
was at length surrendered, better feelings were indulg-
ed ; commercial intercourse was revived, and larger im-
portations of goods were made than ever.

On the meeting of the house of representatives of Massachu-
setts, a vote of gratitude to the king, and of thanks to Mr. Pitt,
the Duke of Grafton, and othei*s, was passed by that body. By
the house of burgesses in Virginia, it was resolved to erect a
statue in honor of the king, and an obelisk in honor of all those
.whether of the house of peers or of the commons, who had dis-
tinguished themselves in favor of the rights of the colonies.

12. In July, 1766, the administration of the Marquis
of Rockingham was dissolved, and a new one formed,
under the direction of Mr. Pitt, at this time created Earl
of Chatham. Unfortunately, it was composed of men of
different political principles, and attached to different
parties. Among the members of the new cabinet, hos-
tile to America, was Charles Townshend, chancellor of
the exchequer. Influenced by Lord Grenville, this lat-
ter minister, in the year 1767, introduced into parlia-
ment a second plan for taxing America, viz. by impos-
ing duties on glass, paper, pasteboard, painters' colors,
and tea.

13. During the discussion of this bill, Mr. Pitt was
confined by indisposition, and hence unable to raise his
voice against it. Without much opposition, it passed
both houses, and, on the 29th of June, received the royal
assent. At the same time were passed two other acts ,
■ — the one establishing a new board of custom-house
officers in America; and the other restraining the legis*
iature of the province of New York from passing any

158 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

act whatever, until they should furnish the king's troops
with several required articles.

14. These three acts reached America at the same
time, and again excited universal alarm. The first and
second were particularly odious. The new duties, it
was perceived, were only a new mode of drawing money
from the colonies ; and the same strong opposition to the
measure was exhibited, which had prevailed against the
stamp act. Several of the colonies, through their colo-
nial assemblies, expressed their just abhorrence of these
enactments, and their determination never to submit to
them.

Soon after the establishment of the new board of custom-house
officers, at Boston, under the above act, a fit occasion presented
itself, for an expression of the public indignation. This was the
arrival at that port, in May, 1768, of the sloop Liberty, belonging
to Mr. Hancock, and laden with wines from Madeira.

During the night, most of her cargo was unladen, and put into
stores ; on the following day, the sloop was entered at the cus-
tom-house, with a few pipes only. A discovery being made ci"
these facts, by the custom-house officers, the vessel was seized,
and by their order removed alongside of the Romney, a ship of
war, then in harbor. The conduct of the custom-house officers, in
this transaction, roused the indignant feelings of the J3ostonians,
who unwarrantably attacked the houses of the officers, and even
assaulted their persons. No prosecutions, however, could be sus-
tained, from the excited state of public feeling. Finding them-
selves no longer safe in the town, the officers prudently sought
protection on board the Romney, and subsequently retired to
Castle William.

15. The public excitement was soon after increased
by the arrival in the harbor of two regiments of troops,
under the command of Colonel Dalrymple. These were
designed to assist the civil magistrates in the preserva-
tion of peace, and the custom-house officers in the exe-
cution of their functions.

On the day after its arrival, the fleet was brought to anchor
near Castle William. Having taken a station which command-
ed the town, the troops, under cover of the cannon of the ships,
landed without molestation, and, to the number of upwards of
700 men, marched, with muskets charged, bayonets fixed, martial
music, and the usual military parade, on to the common. In the

WAR OP THE REVOLUTION. 159

evening, the selectmen of Boston were required to quarter the
two regiments in the town; but they absolutely refused. A tem-
porary shelter, however, in Fanueil Hall, was permitted to one
regiment, that was without its camp equipage. The next day,
the state house, by order of the governor, was opened for the
reception of the soldiers; and after the quarters were settled,
two field pieces, with the main guard, were stationed just in its
front. Every thing was calculated to excite the indignation of
the inhabitants. The lower floor of the state house, which had
been used by gentlemen and merchants as an exchange, the
representatives' chamber, the court house, Fanueil Hall — places
with which were intimately associated ideas of justice and free-
dom, as well as of convenience and utility — were now filled with
regular soldiers. Guards were placed at the doors of the state
house, through which the council must pass, in going to their
own chamber. The common was covered with tents. Soldiers
were constantly marching and countermarching to relieve the

fuards. The sentinels challenged the inhabitants as they passed,
'he Lord's day was profaned, and the devotion of the sanctuary
disturbed by the sound of drums and other military music. There
was every appearance of a garrisoned town.

16. In Feb., 1769, both houses of parliament went a
step beyond all that had preceded, in an address to the
king, requesting him to give orders to the governor of
Massachusetts — the spirited conduct- of which province
was particularly obnoxious to the ministry — to take no-
tice of such as might be guilty of treason, that they might
be sent to England and tried there.

A measure more odious to the people of America, or
more hostile to the British constitution, could not be
named, than for a man to be torn from his country, to
be tried by a jury of strangers.

The house of burgesses of Virginia met soon after the official
accounts of this address were received, and, in a few days, passed
several spirited resolutions, expressing " their exclusive right to
tax their constituents, and denying the right of his majesty to
remove an offender out of the country for trial." The next day,
the royal governor of that colony sent for the house of burgesses,
and addressed them laconically as follows : — " Mr. Speaker, and
gentlemen of the house of burgesses, 1 have heard of your re-
solves, and augur ill of their effects. You have made it my duty
to dissolve you, and you are accordingly dissolved !" The as-
sembly of North Carolina passed similar resolutions, and were
dissolved by their governor, in a similar manner.

*60 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

In May following, the assembly of Massachusetts convened
but refused to transact any business while the state house was
surrounded by an armed force. This force, however, the governor
would not remove, but adjourned the assembly to Cambridge.
At this place, the assembly passed resolutions expressing their
belief, that the maintenance of a standing army in the colony, in
time of peace, was an infringement of the natural rights o*
the people. They refused to make any of the appropriations of
money desired by the governor, in consequence of which he pro-
rogued them. In August, the governor (Bernard) was recalled,
and the government devolved upon Lieutenant-Governor
Hutchinson.

17. During the session of parliament in 1770, the
Duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury, resigned, and
was succeeded in that office by the afterwards celebrat-
ed Lord North. In March, this latter gentleman intro-
duced a ill, abolishing all duties, imposed by the act of
1707, on all the articles, except tea. This partial suspen-
sion of the duties served to soften the feelings of the Amer-
leans ; but the exception in relation to tea, it was quite
apparent, was designed as a salvo to the national honor,
and an evidence, which the British ministry were unwill-
ing to relinquish, of the right of parliament to tax the
colonies.

18. While affairs were thus situated, an event occur-
red, which produced great excitement in America, par-
ticularly in Massachusetts. This was an affray, on the
evening of the 5th of March, 1770, between several of
the citizens of Boston, and a number of British soldiers,,
stationed at the custom-house. Several of the inhabit-
ants were killed, and others severely wounded.

The quarrel commenced on the 2d of March, at Gray's rope
walk, between a soldier and a man employed at the rope walk.
The provocation was given by the citizen, and a scuffle ensued,
in which the soldier was beaten. On the 5th of the month,
the soldiers, while under arms, were pressed upon and insulted,
and dared to fire. One of them, who had received a blow, fired
at the aggressor ; and a single discharge from six others succeed-
ed. Three of the citizens were killed, and five dangerously
wounded. The town was instantly thrown into the greatest
commotion, the bells were rung, and the general cry was, ""To
arms." In a short time, several thousands of the citizens had

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 161

assembled, and a dreadful scene of blood must have ensued,
but for the promise of Gov. Hutchinson, that the affair should be
settled to their satisfaction in the morning. Capt. Preston,
who commanded the soldiers, was committed with them to prison.
Upon their trial, the captain and six soldiers were acquitted;
two were convicted of manslaughter. For several subsequent
years, the evening of the day on which this outrage was committed
was commemorated by the citizens of Boston, and the event gave
occasion to addresses the most warm and patriotic, which served
to waken up and increase the spirit of the revolution

19. During the summer of 1772, another event occur-
red, which presented a fresh obstacle to a reconciliation
between America and the mother country. This was the
destruction, by the people of Rhode Island, of a British
armed schooner, called Gaspee, which had been sta-
tioned in that colony to ussist the board of custom in
the execution of the revenue and trade laws.

The destruction of this vessel grew out of an odious requisition
of her commander, upon the masters of packets, navigating the
bay, to lower their colors, on passing the schooner.

On the 9th of June, as the Providence packet was sailing into
the harbor of Newport, her captain was ordered to lower his col-
ors. Upon his refusal, a shot was fired at him from the schooner,
which immediately made sail in chase. By a dexterous manage-
ment, on the part of the master of the packet, he led the schooner
on a shoal, where she grounded, and remained fast. At night, it
was determined by a number of fishermen, "and others, headed by
several respectable merchants of Providence, to make them-
selves masters of her, and then set her entire. When the knowl-
edge of this event came to the governor, a reward of five hundred
pounds was offered, by proclamation, for the discovery of the
offenders, and the royal pardon to those who would confess their
guilt. Commissioners were appointed also to investigate the
offence, and bring the perpetrators to justice. But after remain-
ing some time in session, they reported that they could obtain
no evidence, and thus the affair terminated.

20. In '1773, an important measure was adopted by
most of the colonies, viz. the appointment of committees of
correspondence and inquiry, in various parts of their re-
spective territories, by means of which a confidential
and invaluable interchange of opinions was kept up be-
tween the colonies, and great unity of sentiment was
thereby promoted.
14*

162 rERiOD v. — 1775 to 1783.

This measure had its origin in Massachusetts, in which town
meetings were called to express their views of the oppressive
acts of the British parliament, and especially of an act by which a
salary was voted to the royal governor of Massachusetts by par-
liament, and the people of that colony required to pay it. In
these meetings, the town of Boston took the lead. A committee
was appointed to address the several towns in the colony, and to
urge upon them the importance of an unanimous expression
of their feelings, with regard to the conduct of the British
ministry.

The proceedings of the assembly, and of the towns in Massa-
chusetts, were communicated to the house of burgesses in Vir-
ginia, in March, 1773, upon which that body passed a resolution
appointing a committee of correspondence and inquiry, whose
business it was to obtain the most early and authentic intelligence
of the proceedings of the British government in relation to the
colonies, and to maintain a correspondence with the other col-
onies touching all affairs of mutual interest.

Upon the recommendation of Virginia, similar committees of
correspondence and inquiry were appointed by the different co-
lonial assemblies, and a confidential interchange of opinions was
thus kept up between the colonies.

21. During these transactions in America, a plan was
devised by the British ministry to introduce tea into the
colonies. For some time little of that article had been
imported into the country, from a determination of the
people not to submit to the payment of the duty upon it.
In consequence of this, the teas of the East India com-
pany had greatly accumulated in their warehouses. To
enable them to export their teas to America, the British
minister introduced a bill into parliament, allowing
the company to export their teas into America, with . a
drawback of all the duties paid in England. As this
would make the tea cheaper in America thau in Great
Britain, it was presumed that the Americans would pay
the small duty upon it, which was only three pence. In
this, however, the parliament mistook. Not a single
penny, by way of duty, was paid upon it, nor a single
pound of it consumed.

On the passage of this bill, the company made a shipment of
large quantities of tea to Charleston, Philadelphia, New York,
and Boston. Before its arrival, the resolution had been formed by
• lie inhabitants of those places, that, if possible^ it should not even

WAft OF THE si

OI.IITION.

103

be landed. The cargo destined for Charleston was, indeed, land-
ed and stored, bnt was not permitted to be offered for sale
The vessels which brought tea to Philadelphia and New York,
were compelled to return to England, without even having made
an entry at the custom-house.

It was designed by the leading patriots of Boston to make a
similar disposition of the cargoes expected at that place ; but, on
their arrival, the consignees were found to be the relations or
friends of the governor, and they could not be induced to re-
sign their trust. Several town-meetings were held on the sub-
ject, and spirited resolutions passed, that no considerations would
induce the inhabitants to permit the landing of the tea. Orders
were at the same time given k> the captains to obtain clearances
at the custom-house, without the usual entries; but this the col
lector pertinaciously refused.

It was in this state of things that the citizens of Boston again
assembled to determine what measures to adopt. While the dis-
cussions were going on, a captain of a vessel was despatched to
the governor to request a passport. At length, he returned to say
that the governor refused. The meeting was immediately dis-
solved. A secret plan had been formed to mingle the tea with
the waters of the ocean. Three different parties soon after sal-

lied out, in the costume of Mohawk Indians, and precipitately
made their way to the wharves. At the same time, the citizens

164 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

were seen in crowds directing their course to the same place, to
become spectators of a scene as novel as the enterprise was bold.
Without noise, without the tumult usual on similar occasions, the
tea was taken from the vessel by the conspirators, and expedi-
tiously offered as an oblation " to the watery god."

22. Intelligence of these proceedings was communi-
cated, in a message from the throne, to both houses of
parliament, on the 7th of March, 1774. The excite-
ment was peculiarly strong. In the spirit of revenge
against Massachusetts, and particularly against Boston,
which was considered as the chief seat of rebellion, a
bill was brought forward, called the "Boston Port Bill"
by which the port of Boston was precluded from the
privilege of landing or discharging, or of loading and
shipping goods, wares, and merchandise.

A second bill, which passed at this time, essentially
altered the charter of the province, making the appoint-
ment of the council, justices, judges, &,c. dependent upon
the crown, or its agent. A third soon followed, author-
izing and directing the governor to send any person in-
dicted for murder, or any other capital offence, to
another colony, or to Great Britain, for trial.

23. On the arrival of these acts, the town of Boston
passed the following vote : " That it is the opinion of this
town, that, if the other colonies come into a joint resolution
to stop all importation from Great Britain and the West
Indies, till the act for blocking up this harbor be repealed,
the same will prove the salvation of North America and
her liberties." Copies of this vote were transmitted to
each of the colonies.

As an expression of their sympathy with the people

of Boston in their distress, the house of burgesses in

Virginia ordered that the day on which the Boston port

bill was to take effect, should be observed as a day of

fasting and prayer.

Obs. The words Whigs and Tories were, about this time, intro-
duced as the distinguishing names of parties. By the former
was meant those who favored the cause of Boston, and were
zealous in supporting the colonies against the parliament ; by the
latter was meant the favorers of Great Britain.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 165

24. During these transactions in Massachusetts, meas-
ures had been taken to convene a continental congress.
On the fourth of September, 1774, deputies from eleven
colonies met at Philadelphia, and elected Peyton Ran-
dolph, the then late speaker of the Virginia assembly, pres-
ident, and Charles Thompson, secretary. During its ses-
sion, this body agreed upon a declaration of their rights;
recommended the non-importation of British goods into
the country, and the non-exportation of American prod-
uce to Great Britain, so long as their grievances were
unredressed ; voted an address to his majesty, and like-
wise one to the people of Great Britain, and another to
the French inhabitants of Canada.

The congress, which thus terminated its session, has justly been
celebrated, from that time to the present; and its celebrity will
continue, while wisdom finds admirers, and patriotism is regard
ed with veneration. Both at home and abroad they were spoken
of in terms of the highest admiration. Abroad, the Earl of
Chatham, in one of his brilliant speeches, remarked of them : —
u History, my lords, has been my favorite study ; and in the cele-
brated writings of antiquity have I often admired the patriotism
of Greece and Rome ; but, my lords, I must declare and avow
that, in the master states of the world, T know not the people, or
senate, who, in such a complication of difficult circumstances,
can stand in preference to the delegates of America assembled
in general congress at Philadelphia." At home, they were
celebrated by a native and popular bard, in an equally elevated
strain : —

Now meet the fathers of this western clime ;

Nor names more noble graced the rolls of fame,
When Spartan firmness braved the wrecks of time,

Or Latian virtue fann'd the heroic flame.

Not deeper thought the immortal sage inspired,

On Solon's lips when Grecian senates hung ;
Not manlier eloquence the bosom fired,

When genius thundered from the Athenian tongue.

25. An assembly was ordered, by Gov. Gage of Mas-
sachusetts, to convene October 5th ; but before that pe-
riod arrived, judging their meeting inexpedient, he coun-
teracted the writs of convocation, by a proclamation.
The assembly, however, to the number of ninety, met
at Salem, where the governor not attending, they ad-

166 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

journed to Concord. Here they chose John Hancock
president, and, after adjourning to Cambridge, drew up
a plan for the immediate defence of the province, by
enlisting men, appointing general officers, &c.

In November, this provincial congress met again, and resolved
to ejquip twelve thousand men, to act in any emergency ; and to
enlist one fourth part of the militia as minute-men. At the sam**
time, a request was forwarded to Connecticut, New Hampshire,
and Rhode Island, jointly to increase this army to twenty thou-
sand men.

26. Early the next year, January 7th, 1775, Lord
Chatham, Mr. Pitt, after a long retirement, resumed his
seat in the house of lords, and introduced a conciliatory
bill, the object of which was to settle the troubles in
America. But the efforts of this venerable and peace-
making man wholly failed, the bill being rejected by a
majority of sixty-four to thirty-two, without even the
compliment of laying it on the table.

The rejection of this bill was followed the next day by the
introduction of a bill, which finally passed, to restrain the trade
of the New England provinces, and to forbid their fishing on the
banks of Newfoundland. Soon after, restrictions were imposed
upon the middle and southern colonies, with the exception of
New York, Delaware, and JNorth Carolina. This bill, designed
to promote disunion among the colonies, happily failed of its
object.

Thus we have given a succinct account of the system
of measures adopted by the ministry of England toward
the American colonies after the peace of '63 — measures
most unfeeling and unjust ; but which no petitions, how-
ever respectful, and no remonstrances, however loud,
could change. Satisfied of this, justice permitted the
people, and self-respect and self-preservation loudly sum-
moned them, to resist by force.

27. The crisis, therefore, had now arrived, the signal
of war was given, and the blood shed at Lexington opened
the scene.

Gen. Gage, the king's governor of Massachusetts,
learning that a large quantity of military stores had been
deposited by the provincials at Concord, detached Lieut

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.

167

Col. Smith, and Major Pitcairn, with eight hundred
grenadiers, to destroy them. On their arrival at Lex-
ington, on the morning of the 19th of April, 1775,
seventy of the militia, who had hastily assembled upon
an alarm, were under arms on the parade. Eight of
these were, without provocation, killed, and several
wounded.

The greatest precaution was taken by Governor Gage, to pre-
vent the intelligence of this expedition from reaching the country.
Officers were dispersed along the road to intercept expresses,
who might be sent from Boston. But the precaution proved in-
effectual. The alarm was given, and was rapidly spread by
means of church bells, guns, and volleys.

The slaughter of the militia at Lexington was extremely wan-
ton. Major Pitcairn, the British commander, on seeing them
on the parade, rode up to them, and, with a loud voice, cried out,
" Disperse, disperse, you rebels ; throw down your arms and dis
perse." The sturdy yeomanry not immediately obeying his or
ders, he approached nearer, discharged his pistol, and ordered his
soldiers to fire.

From Lexington, the detachment proceeded to Cohcord, and
destroyed the stores. After killing several of the militia, wno
came forth to oppose them, thev retreated to Lexington with

1GS

period v. — 1775 to 1783.

some loss, the Americans firing upon them from behind walls,
hedges, and buildings.

Fortunately for the British, here Lord Percy met them, with a
reinforcement of nine hundred men, some marines, and two
field-pieces. Still annoj^ed by the provincials, they continued
their retreat to Bunker's Hill, in Charlestown, and the day follow-
ing crossed over to Boston. The British lost, in killed and
wounded, during their absence, two hundred and seventy-three.
The loss of the Americans amounted to eighty-eight killed,
wounded and missing.

*28. Hostilities having commenced, it was deemed
important to secure the fortresses of Ticonderoga and
Crown Point. Accordingly, a number of volunteers from
Connecticut and Vermont, under command of Col.
Ethan Allen and Col. Benedict Arnold, marched against
Ticonderoga, and, on the 10th of May, took it by sur-
prise, the garrison being asleep. The fortress of Crown
Point surrendered shortly after.

On the arrival of Allen at Ticonderoga, he demanded the fort.
" By what authority? " asked the commander. " 1 demand it,"
said Allen, '*in the name of the great Jehovah, and of the con-
tinental congress." The summons was instantly obeyed, and
the fort was. with its valuable? stores, surrendered.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.

109

29. The taking of Ticonderoga and Crown Point was
soon followed by the memorable Battle of Bunker's Hill,
as it is usually called, or of Breed's Hill, a high emi-
nence in Charlestown, within cannon-shot of Boston,
where the battle was actually fought, on the 17th of June.

The evening preceding, a detachment of one thousand Ameri
cans was ordered to make an intrenchment on Bunker's Hill ;
but, by some mistake, they proceeded to Breed's Hill, and, by the
dawn of day, had thrown up a redoubt eight rods square and
four feet high.

On discovering this redoubt in the morning, the British com-
menced a severe cannonade upon it, from several ships and float-
ing batteries, and from a fortification on Copp's Hill, in Boston,
which was continued until afternoon. The Americans, however,
never intermitted their work for a moment, and, during the fore
noon, lost but a single man.

Between twelve and one o'clock, three thousand British, under
command of Major- Gen. Howe, and Brigadier- Gen. Pigot, crossed
Charles River, with an intention to dislodge the Americans.

A3 they advanced, the British commenced firing at some dis

from the redoubt ; but the Americans reserved their fir«

until the enemy were within twelve rods. They then opened, and

170

period v. — 1775 to 1783.

the carnage was terrible. The British retreated m precipitate
confusion. They were, however, rallied by their officers, being,
in some instances, pushed on by their swords, and were again led
to the attack. The Americans now suffered them to approach
within six rods, when their fire mowed them down in heaps, and
again they fled. Unfortunately for the Americans, their ammuni-
tion here failed ; and, on the third charge of the British, they
were obliged to retire, after having obstinately resisted, even
longer than prudence admitted. The British lost in this engage-
ment two hundred and twenty-six killed, among whom was
Major Pitcairn, who first lighted the torch of war at Lexington,
and eight hundred and twenty-eight wounded. The Americana
lost one hundred and thirty-nine killed, and of wounded and miss-
ing there were three hundred and fourteen. Among the killed
was the lamented Gen. Warren.

The horrors of this scene were greatly increased by the con-
flagration of Charlestown, effected, during the heat of the battle,
by the orders of Gen. Gage. By this wanton act of barbarity,

two thousand people were deprived of their habitations, and
property to the amount of one hundred and twenty thousand
pounds sterling, perished in the flames. Wanton, however, aa
the burning of Charlestown was, it wonderfully enhanced \he
dreadful magnificence of the day. To the volleys of musketry and

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 171

the roar- of cannon ; to the shouts of the fighting and the groans
of the dying; to the dark and awful atmosphere of smoke, en-
veloping the whole peninsula, and illumined in every quarter by
the streams of fire from the various instruments of death ; the
conflagration of six hundred buildings added a gloomy and amaz-
ing grandeur. In the midst of this waving lake of flame, the
lofty steeple, converted into a blazing pyramid, towered and trem
bled over the vast pyre, and finished the scene of desolation.

To the Americans, the consequences of this battle were those
of a decided victory. They learned that their enemies were not
invulnerable. At the same time, they learned the importance of
stricter discipline and greater preparations. As the result of the
battle spread, the national pulse beat still higher, and the arm of
opposition was braced still more firmly.

30. The second continental congress met at Philadel-
phia, on the 10th of May. As military opposition to
Great Britain was now resolved upon by the colonies,
and had actually commenced, it became necessary to fix
upon a proper person to conduct that opposition. The
person unanimously selected by congress was George
Washington, a member of their body from Virginia.

The honor of having suggested and advocated the choice of
this illustrious man, is justly ascribed to the elder President Ad-
ams,, at that time a member of the continental congress. The
army was at this time at Cambridge, Massachusetts, under Gen.
Ward. As yet, congress had not adopted the army, nor had it
taken any measures to appoint a commander-in-chief. These
points could with safety be neglected no longer. This Mr. Adams
clearly saw, and by his eloquence induced congress to appoint a
day when the subject should be discussed.

The day was fixed. It came. Mr. Adams went in, took the
floor, urged the measure of adopting the army, and, after debate,
it passed. The next thing was to get a lawful commander for
this lawful army, with supplies, &c. All looked to Mr. Adams,
on this occasion ; and he was ready. He took the floor, and
went into a mmute delineation of the character of General Ward,
bestowing on him the epithets which, then, belonged to no one else.
At the end of this eulogy, he said, " But this is not the man I have
chosen." He then portrayed the character of a commander-in-
chief, such as was required by the peculiar situation of the colo-
nies at that juncture ; and after he had presented the qualifica-
tions in his strongest language, and given the reasons for the
nomination he was about to make, he said, " Gentlemen, I know
these qualifications are high, but we all know they are needful, at
this crisis, in this, chief. Does any one say that they are not to ba

172 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

obtained in the country ? 1 reply, they are : they reside in on«
of our own body, and he is the person whom I now nominate
George Washington, of Virginia."

Washington, who sat on Mr. Adams's right hand, was looking
him intently in the face, to watch the name he was about to an-
nounce ; and not expecting it would be his own, he sprung from
his seat the moment he heard it, and rushed into an adjoining
room, as quickly as though moved by a shock of electricity.

An adjournment was immediately moved and carried, in order
to give the members time to deliberate on so important a meas-
ure. The following day Washington was unanimously appoint-
ed commander-in-chief of the American forces ; and on present-
ing their commission to him, congress unanimously adopted the
resolution, " that they would maintain and assist him, and ad-
here to him, with their lives and fortunes, in the cause of Ameri-
can liberty."

Following the appointment of Gen. Washington, was the ap-
pointment of four major-generals, Artemas Ward, Charles Lee,
Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam ; and eight brigadier-gen-
erals, Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster,
William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, Jonn Sullivan,
and Nathaniel Greene.

31. Gen. Washington, on his arrival at Cambridge,
on the second of July, was received with joyful acclama-
tions by the American army. He found it, consisting
of 14,000 men, stretched from Roxbury to Cambridge,
and thence to Mystic River, a distance of twelve miles.
The British forces occupied Bunker and Breed's Hill,
and Boston Neck.

The attention of the commander-in-chief was immediately di-
rected to the strength and situation of the enemy, and to the in-
troduction of system and union into the army, the want of which
pervaded every department. This was a delicate and difficult
attempt ; but the wisdom and firmness of Washington removed
every obstacle, and at length brought even independent freemen,
in a good degree, to the control of military discipline.

32. While Washington was employed in organizing
the army, and preparing for future operations, an impor-
tant expedition was planned against Canada, the charge
of which was assigned to Gens. Schuyler and Montgom-
ery. On the 10th of September, one thousand Ameri-
can troops landed at St. Johns, the first British post in
Canada, (one hundred and fifteen miles north of Ticon-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 173

deroga,) but found it advisable to retire to the Isle aux
Noix, twelve miles south of St. Johns. Here the health
of Gen. Schuyler obliging him to return to Ticonderoga,
the command devolved on Gen. Montgomery. This en-
terprising officer, in a few days, returned to the invest-
ment of St. Johns, and, on the 3d of November, received
the surrender of this important post.

On the surrender of St. Johns, five hundred regulars and one
hundred Canadians became prisoners to the provincials. There
were also taken thirty-nine pieces of cannon, seven mortars, and
five hundred stands of arms.

Gen. Montgomery next proceeded against Montreal,
which, without resistance, capitulated. From Montreal
he rapidly proceeded towards Quebec.

Before his arrival, however, Col. Arnold, who had
been despatched by Gen. Washington with one thousand
American troops from Cambridge, had reached Quebec,
by the way of Kennebeck, a river of Maine, — had as-
cended the heights of Abraham, where the brave Wolfe
ascended before him ; but had found it necessary to re-
tire to a place twenty miles above Quebec, where he
was waiting for the arrival of Montgomery.

Seldom was there an expedition attempted during the Ameri-
can war, in which more hardship was endured, or more untiring
perseverance manifested, than in this of Arnold's. In ascending
the Kennebeck, his troops were constantly obliged to work
against an impetuous current, and often to haul their batteaux
up rapid currents and over dangerous falls. Nor was their march
through the country, by an unexplored route of three hundred
miles, less difficult or dangerous. They had swamps and woods,
mountains and precipices, alternately to surpass Added to their
other trials, their provisions failed, and, to support life, they were
obliged to eat their dogs, cartouch-boxes, clothes, and shoes.
While at the distance of one hundred miles from human habita-
tions, they divided their whole store, about four pints of flour to
a man. At thirty miles' distance, they had baked and eaten their
last pitiful morsel. Yet the courage and fortitude of these men
continued unshaken. They were suffering in their country's
cause, were toiling for wives and children, were contending fof
the rights and blessings of freedom. After thirty-one days of in-
cessant toil- through a hideous wilderness, they reached the hab
Stations of men.

15*

174

period v. — 1775 to 1783.

33. Montgomery, having effected a junction with
Arnold, commenced the siege of Quebec. On the 5th
©f December, after continuing the siege nearly a month
to little purpose^ the bold plan was adopted of attempting
the place by scaling the walls. Two attacks were made,
at the same time, in different quarters of the town, by
Montgomery and Arnold. The attempt, however, proved
unsuccessful, and, to the great loss and grief of Ameri-
ca, fatal to the brave Montgomery. He fell while at-
tempting to force a barrier : and with him fell two distin
guished officers, Capt. M'Pherson, his aid, and Capt.
Cheeseman.

After this repulse, Arnold retired about three miles
from Quebec, where he continued encamped through a
rigorous winter. On the return of spring, 1776, finding
his forces inadequate to the reduction of Quebec, and
not being reinforced, he retired. By the 18th of June,
the Americans, having been compelled to relinquish one
post after another, had wholly evacuated Canada.

The garrison of Quebec consisted, at the time of the above at-
tack, of about one thousand five hundred men ; the American
forces were near eight hundred. The loss of the Americans in
killed and wounded was about one hundred, and three hundred
were taken prisoners.

The death of General Montgomery was deeply lamented both
m Europe and America. " The most powerful speakers in the
British parliament displayed their eloquence in praising his vir-
tues and lamenting his fall." Congress directed a monument to
be erected to his memory, expressive of their sense of his high
patriotism and heroic conduct. In 1818, New York, his adopted
state, removed his remains to her own metropolis, where the
monument had been placed ; and near that they repose.

34. During this year, 1775,* Virginia, through the in-
discretion of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, was
involved in difficulties little short of those to which the
inhabitants of Massachusetts were subjected. From the
earliest stages of the controversy with Great Britain, the
Virginians had been in the foremost rank of opposition ;
and, in common with other provinces, had taken meas«
ares for defence.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 175

These measures the royal governor attempted to
thwart, by the removal of guns and ammunition, which
had Been stored by the people in a magazine. The con-
duct of the governor roused the inhabitants, and occa-
sioned intemperate expressions of resentment. Appre-
hending personal danger, Lord Dunmore retired on board
the Fowey man-of-war, from which he issued his procla-
mations, instituting martial law, and proffering freedom
to such slaves as would repair to the royal standard.
Here, also, by degrees, he equipped and armed a num-
ber of vessels ; and, upon being refused provisions by
the provincials, from on shore, he proceeded to reduce
the town of Norfolk to ashes. The loss was estimated
at three hundred thousand pounds sterling. Nearly six
thousand persons were deprived of their habitations.

In like manner, the royal governors of North and South Caro-
lina thought it prudent to retire, and seek safety on board men-of-
war. Royal government generally terminated this year through-
out the country, the king's governors, for the most part, abdicat-
ing their governments, and taking refuge on board the English
shipping.

35. Early in the spring of 1776, Gen. Washington con-
templated the expulsion of the British army from Boston,
by direct assault. In a council of war, it was deemed
expedient, however, rather to take possession of, and
fortify Dorchester Heights, which commanded the har-
bor and British shipping. The night of the 4th of March
was selected for the attempt. Accordingly, in the even-
ing, a covering party of eight hundred, followed by a
working party of twelve hundred, with intrenching tools,
took possession of the heights unobserved by the enemy.

Here, betaking themselves to work with so much ac-
tivity, by morning they had constructed fortifications,
which completely sheltered them. The surprise of the
British cannot easily be conceived. The English ad-
miral, after examining the works, declared that, if thb
Americans were not dislodged' from their position, his
vessels could no longer remain in safety in the harbor,

176 period v. — 1775 to 1783.

It was determined, therefore, by the British, to evacuate
Boston, which they now did ; and on the 17th, the
British troops, under command of Lord William Howe,
successor of Gen. Gage, sailed for Halifax. Gen. Wash-
ington, to the great joy of the inhabitants, army, and
nation, immediately marched into the town.

The r'ear guard of the British was scarcely out of the town,
when Washington entered it on the other side, with colors dis-
played, drums beating, and all the forms of victory and triumph.
He was received by the inhabitants with demonstrations of joy
and gratitude. Sixteen months had the people suffered the dis-
tresses of hunger, and the outrages of an insolent soldiery.

The town presented a melancholy spectacle, at the time the
army of Washington entered. One thousand five hundred loy-
alists, with their families, had just departed on board the British
fleet, tearing themselves from home and friends, for the love of
the royal cause. Churches were stripped of pews and benches
for fuel, shops were opened and rifled of goods to clothe the army,
and houses had been pillaged by an unfeeling soldiery.

36. While affairs were proceeding thus in the north,
an attempt was made, in June and July, to destroy the
fort on Sullivan's Island, near Charleston, S. C, by
Gen. Clinton and Sir Peter Parker. After an action of
upwards of ten hours, the British were obliged to retire,
having their ships greatly injured, and with the loss of
two hundred killed and wounded. The loss of the
Americans was but ten killed and twenty-two wounded.

The fort was commanded by Col. Moultrie, whose garrison
consisted of but three hundred and seventy-five regular troops,
and a few militia. On the fort was mounted twenty-six cannon
of eighteen and nine pounders. The British force consisted of
two fifty gun ships, and four frigates, each of twenty-eight guns,
besides several smaller vessels, with three thousand troops on
board. By this repulse of the British, the Southern States obtain-
ed a respite from the calamities of war for two years and a half.

Among the American troops who resisted the British, in their
attack on Fort Moultrie, was a Sergeant Jasper, whose name has
been given to one of the counties in Georgia, in commemoration
of his gallant deeds, and who deserves an honorable notice in
every history of his country. In the warmest part of the contest,
the flag-staff was severed by a cannon-ball, and the flag fell to
the bottom of the ditch, on the outside of the works. This acci<
dent was considered, by the anxious inhabitants in Charleston,

WAR OP THE REVOLUTION. 177

as putting an end to the contest, by striking the American flag
to the enemy. The moment Jasper made the discovery, that the
flag had fallen, he jumped from one of the embrasures, and took
up the flag, which he tied to a post, and replaced it on the parapet,
where he supported it until another flag-staff was procured.

37. During these transactions in the south, the con-
tinental congress was in session, intently observing the
aspect of things, and deeply revolving the probable issue
of the present important contest. The idea of inde-
pendence had now been broached among the people,
and the way was, in a measure, prepared to bring the
subject before congress.

Accordingly, on the 8th of June, Richard Henry Lee,
one of the deputies from Virginia, rose and made a mo-
tion to declare America free and independent.

38. The resolution of Mr. Lee was eloquently sup-
ported by him and others, and was still further dis-
cussed on the 11th of June. On this last day, it was
postponed for further consideration to the first day of
July ; and at the same time it was voted that a commit-
tee be appointed to propose a Declaration to the effect
of the resolution. This committee was elected by ballot
on the following day, and consisted of Thomas Jefferson
John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and
Robert R. Livingston.

It is usual, when committees are elected by ballot, that their
numbers are arranged in order according to the number of votes
which each has received. Mr. Jefferson, therefore, probably re
eeived the highest, and Mr. Adam's the next highest number of
votes. The difference is said to have been but a single vote.

Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Adams, standing thus at the head of the
committee, were requested by the other members to act as a sub-
committee to prepare the draft ; and Mr. Jefferson drew up the
paper. The original draft, as brought by him from his study, with
interlineations in the hand-writing of Dr. Franklin, and others in
that of Mr. Adams, was in Mr. Jefferson's possession at the time
of his death. The merit of this paper is Mr. Jefferson's; some
changes were made in it on the suggestion of other members of
the committee, and others by congress, while it was under dis
cussion. But none of them altered the tone, the frame, the ar-
rangement, or the general character of the instrument. As a
composition, the Declaration is Mr. Jefferson's. It is the produc

178 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

tion of his mind, and the high honor of it belongs to him clearljf
and absolutely.

While Mr. Jefferson was the author of the Declaration itself
Mr. Adams was its great supporter on the floor of congress.
This was the unequivocal testimony of Mr. Jefferson. " John
Adams," said he, on one occasion, " was our Colossus on the
floor : not graceful, not elegant, not always fluent in his public
addresses, he yet came out with a power, both of thought and oi
expression, that moved us from our seats." And at another time
he said, " John Adams was the pillar of its support on the floor
of congress ; its ablest advocate and defender against the multi-
farious assaults which were made against it."

39. On the arrival of the day assigned, the subject
was resumed, and on the 4th of July, 1776, upon the
report of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin
Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Philip Livingston, the
thirteen confederate colonies dissolved their allegiance
to the British crown, and declared themselves Free and
Independent, under the name of the Thirteen United
States of America.

This Declaration was ordered to be handsomely engrossed on
parchment ; and on the 2d of August, 1776, was signed by all the
members then present, and by some who were not members on
the 4th of July.

A signature to this instrument was an act of serious concern.
In England, it would be regarded as treason, and expose any man
to the halter or the block. This the signers well knew ; yet,
having counted the cost, they proceeded to the transaction, pre-
pared, if defeat should follow, to lead, without repining, in the
way to martyrdom. The only signature on the original docu-
ment, which exhibits indications of a trembling hand, is that of
Stephen Hopkins, who had been afflicted with the palsy. In thia
work of treason, John Hancock led the way, as president of the
congress, and by the force with which he wrote, he seems to have
determined that his name should never be erased. The pen
with which these signatures were made, has been preserved, and
is now in the cabinet of the Massachusetts Historical Society.

The number who signed the Declaration was fifty-six ; and the
average length of their lives was about sixty-five years Four
of the number attained to the age of ninety years and upwards,
fourteen exceeded eighty years; and twenty-three, or one in two
and a half, reached threescore years and ten. The longevity of
the New England delegation was still more remarkable. Their
number was fourteen, the average of whose lives was seventy
five years. Who will affirm that the unusual age to which thtj

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 179

signers, as a body, attained, was not a reward bestowed upon
them for their fidelity to their country, and the trust which they
in general reposed in the overruling providence of God ? Who
can doubt the kindness of that Providence to the American peo-
ple, in thus prolonging the lives of these men, till the principles
for which they had contended, through a long series of years,
had been acknowledged, and a government been founded upon
them ?

Of this venerable body, not a single one survives. They are
now no more. They are no more, as in 1776, bold and fearless
advocates of independence. They are dead. But how little is
there of the great and good which can die. To their country
they yet live, and live forever. They live in all that perpetuates
the remembrance of men on earth ; in the recorded proofs of
their own great actions, in the offspring of their own great inter-
est, in the deep-engraved lines of public gratitude, and in the
respect and homage of mankind. They live in their example ;
and they live emphatically, and will live, in the influence which
their lives and efforts, their principles and opinions, now exercise,
and will continue to exercise, on the affairs of men, not only in ,
our own country, but throughout the civilized world.

The Declaration of Independence, when sent abroad among the
people, was received with transports of joy. Public rejoicings
were made in various parts of the Union. The ensigns of royalty
were destroyed — public processions were made — bells were rung
— cannon were fired, with other suitable demonstrations of pub-
lic exultation.

40. Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the British
troops, (Sec. 35,) Washington, believing that the posses-
sion of New York would be with them a favorite object,
determined to make it the head-quarters of his army,
and thereby prevent their occupation of it, if such a step
had been contemplated. Accordingly, he soon removed
to that city, with the principal part of his troops.

41. On the 10th of June, Gen. William Howe, with
the army which had evacuated Boston, arrived from
Halifax, off Sandy Hook. Here he was soon after join-
ed by his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, from England,
with a reinforcement. Their combined forces amount-
ed to twenty-four thousand. On the 2d of August, they
landed near the Narrows, nine miles from the city.

42. Previous to the commencement of hostilities, Ad-
miral and Gen. Howe communicated to Washington

180 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

that they were commissioned to settle all difficulties be-
tween Great Britain and the colonies. But not address*
ing Washington by the title due to his rank, he thought
proper to decline receiving their communication. It
appeared, however, that the power of these commission-
ers extended little farther than, in the language of their
instructions, " to grant pardons to such as deserve
mercy."

43. The American army, in and near New York,
amounted to seventeen thousand two hundred and
twenty-five men, a part of whom were encamped near
Brooklyn, on Long Island. On the 27th of August, this
body of the Americans, under command of Brigadier-
Gen. Sullivan, were attacked by the British, under Sir
Henry Clinton, Percy, and Cornwallis, and were defeat-
ed, with the loss of upwards of a thousand men, while.
the loss of the British amounted to less than four hundred.
Gen. Sullivan, and Brigadier-Generals Lord Stirling
and Woodhull, fell into the hands of the British as pris-
oners.

In the heat of the engagement, Gen. Washington had crossed
over to Brooklyn from New York, and, on seeing some of his best
troops slaughtered or taken, he uttered, it is said, an exclama-
tion of anguish. But, deep as his anguish was, and much as lie
wished to succor his troops, prudence forbade the calling in oi'
his forces from New York, as they would by no means hav>*
sufficed to render his army equal to that of the English.

44. After the repulse at Brooklyn, perceiving the oc-
cupation of his position on Long Island to be of no prob-
able importance, Washington withdrew his troops to
New York, and soon after evacuated the city, upon
which, on the 15th of September, the British entered it.

Seldom, if ever, was a retreat conducted with more ability and
prudence, or under more favorable auspices, than that of the
American troops from Long Island. The necessary preparations
having been made, on the 29th of August, at eight in the even-
ing, the troops began to move in the greatest silence. But they
were not on board their vessels before eleven. A violent north-
east wind, and the ebb tide, which rendered the current very
rapid, prevented the passage. The time pressed however. For-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. IS I

Innately, the wind suddenly veered to the n:>rth-west. They
immediately made sail, and landed in New York. Providence
appeared to have watched over the Americans. About two
o'clock in the morning, a thick fog, and at this season of the year
extraordinary, covered all Long Island, whereas the air was per-
fectly clear on the side of New York. Notwithstanding the en-
treaties of his officers, Washington remained the last upon the
shore. It was not till the next morning, when the sun was
already high, and the fog dispelled, that the English perceived
the Americans had abandoned their camp, and were sheltered
from pursuit.

45. On retiring from New York, Gen. Washington,
with his army, occupied for a short time the heights of
Harlem, and several stations in that neighborhood.

On the 16th of September, the day after the British took posses-
sion of New York, a considerable body of the enemy appearing
in the plains between the two camps, the general ordered Col.
Knowlton, with a corps of rangers, and Major Leitch, with three
companies of a Virginia regiment, to get in their rear, while he
amused them by making apparent dispositions to attack their
front. The plan succeeded. A skirmish ensued, in which the
Americans charged the enemy with great intrepidity, and gained
considerable advantage ; but the principal benefit of this action
was its influence in reviving the depressed spirits of the whole
army. Major Leitch, who very gallantly led on the detachment,
was soon brought off the ground, mortally wounded ; and not
long afterward, Colonel Knowlton fell, bravely fighting at the
head of his troops. The Americans in this conflict engaged a
battalion of light infantry, another of Highlanders, and three
companies of Hessian riflemen ; and lost about fifty men killed
and wounded. The loss of the enemy was more tlxan double
that number.

46. Finding his position at Harlem and its vicinity
untenable, Washington broke up his camp, and retired
with a part of his forces to White Plains. Here, on the
28th of October, he was attacked by the British and
Hessians, under Generals Howe, Clinton, Knyphausen,
and De Heister. A partial engagement ensued, and
several hundreds fell on both sides ; but neither party
could claim any decided advantage.

Shortly after, a strong British reinforcement arriving,
under Lord Percy, Washington, deeming his position
unsafe, left it on the night of the 30th, and retired with
16

182 period v. — 1775 to 17S3

his forces to North Castle, about five miles from White
Plains. Leaving about 7500, under command of Gen.
Lee, Washington crossed the North river, and took
post in the neighborhood of Fort Lee.

47. The British general, failing to draw Washington
to a general engagement, next turned his attention to
the reduction of Forts Washington and Lee, which had
been garrisoned for the purpose of preserving the com-
mand of the Hudson river. On the 10th of November,
the former of these forts was attacked by the British.
The defence of the fort by the brave Col. Mag aw was
spirited ; but at length he was obliged to capitulate, and,
with the fort, to surrender his whole force, consisting of
between 2000 and 3000 men. On the 18th, the British
army, crossing the Hudson, proceeded to the attack of Fort
Lee. The garrison in this fort, at first, determined to
defend it ; but, ascertaining that the contest would be en-
tirely unequal, they evacuated it, and, under the guid-
ance of Gen. Greene, joined Washington, who had at
this time taken post at Newark, on the south side of the
Passaic.

48. Finding Newark too near his triumphant foe,
Washington retreated to Brunswick, on the Raritan, and
Lord Cornwall is on the same day entered Newark. The
retreat was still continued from Brunswick to Princeton ;
from Princeton to Trenton ; and from Trenton to the
Pennsylvania side of the Delaware. The pursuit was
urged with so much rapidity? that the rear of the Amer-
ican army, pulling down bridges, was often within sight
and shot of the van of the enemy employed in building
them up.

This retreat through New Jersey was made under circumstances
of the deepest depression. The Americans had just lost the two
forts Washington and Lee, and with the former more than 2000
men. Numbers of the militia were daily claiming to be discharged
and precipitately retired to their habitations ; and even the regu-
lar troops, as if struck with despair, also filed off, and deserted in
bodies. This left the army of Washington so reduced, that it
scarcely amounted to three thousand men ; and even these were

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 183

poorly fed, and were exposed in an open country, without instru-
ments to intrench themselves, without tents to shelter them from
the inclemency of the season, and in the midst of a population little
zealous, or rather hostile to the republic. Added to this, numbers
of the leading characters, both in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
who had been friendly to the American cause, were changing sides,
and making peace with the enemy. This example became perni-
cious, and the most prejudicial effects were to be apprehended
from it. Every day ushered in some new calamity ; the cause
of America seemed hastening to irretrievable ruin. The most
discreet no longer dissembled that the term of the war was
at hand, and that the hour was come, in which the colonies
were about to resume the yoke. But Washington, in the midst
of so much adversity, did not despair of the public safety. His
constancy was an object of admiration. Far from betraying any
symptoms of hesitation or fear, he showed himself to his deject-
ed soldiers with a serene countenance, and radiant, as it were,
with a certain hope of a better future. Adverse fortune had not
been able to vanquish, nay, not even to shake, his invincible
spirit. Firmly resolved to pursue their object through every for-
tune, the congress manifested a similar constancy. It appeared
as if the spirit of these great minds had increased with adversity.

49. Notwithstanding the general aspect of affairs, on
the part of America, was thus forbidding, the con-
tinental congress, so far from betraying symptoms of
despair, manifested more confidence than ever ; and, as
if success must eventually crown their enterprises,
calmly occupied themselves in drawing up various Arti-
cles of Confederation and perpetual union between the
states.

Such articles were obviously necessary, that "the line
of distinction between the powers of the respective states,
and of congress, should be exactly defined. In this
way, only, would collisions be avoided, and the peace
and harmony of the Union be preserved.

Accordingly, such articles were now digested, and, at
the sitting of congress, October 4th, 1776, were signed
by all the members, and copies immediately sent to the
respective assemblies of each state for approbation.

50. Fortunately, Washington, about this time, re-
ceived reinforcements of militia and regular troops,
which, together with his previous forces, gave him ar

184

period v. — 1775 to 1783.

army of about 7000 effective men. But this numbei
being soon to be reduced by the retirement of a large
body of militia, whose period of enlistment would close
with the year, Washington formed the bold resolution
of recrossing the Delaware, and of attacking the British
at Trenton. This plan was carried into effect on the
night of the 25th of December ; and on the following
day, Hessian prisoners to the amount of one thousand
were taken by the Americans, with the loss of scarcely
a man on their side. This was a brilliant achievement
and served to arouse the desponding hopes of America

The American troops detached for this service arrived, in the
dusk of tiie evening, at the bank of the river. The passage of
the river by the troops and the artillery, it was expected, wo.uld
be effected before midnight. But this was found to be impracti-
cable. The cold was so intense, and the river so obstructed with
floating ice, that the landing of the artillery was not accomplished
until four in the morning. An immediate and precipitate march
was made towards Trenton, with the hope of reaching it before
day. But a thick fog setting in, and a mist, mingled with sleet,
«o retarded their march, that they did not reach Trenton until

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 185

eight o'clock ; yet, at this late hour, the Hessians had no suspi
cion of the approach of the enemy.

51. Justly elated with the success at Trenton, Wash-
ington soon after proceeded to Princeton, where, on the
1st of January, he attacked a party of British, of whom
upwards of one hundred were killed, and the remainder,
amounting to about three hundred, were made prisoners.
The loss of the Americans was less than that of the
British ; but in that number were several valuable officers,
and among them the brave General Mercer.

52. Soon after the above victories, Washington retired
(January 6th, 1777) to winter quarters, at Morristown,
where his army were nearly all inoculated with the
small-pox, that disease having appeared among the troops,
and rendering such a measure necessary. The disease
proved mortal but in few instances ; nor was there a day
in which the soldiers could not, if called upon, have
fought the enemy.

53. On the opening of the campaign of 1777, the
army of Washington, although congress had offered to
recruits bounties in land, and greater wages, amounted
to little more than 7000 men. Towards the latter end
of May, Washington quitted his winter encampment at
Morristown, and, about the same time, the royal army
moved from Brunswick, which they had occupied dur-
ing the winter. Much shifting of the armies followed,
but no definite plan of operation had apparently been
settled by either.

Previous to this, however, General Howe sent a detachment
of two thousand men, under command of Gen. Tryon, Gen.
Agnew, and Sir William Erskine, to destroy some stores and pro
visions deposited at Danhury, in Connecticut. Meeting with no
resistance, they reached Danbury on the 26th of April, and de-
stroyed one thousand eight hundred barrels of beef and pork, and
eight hundred of flour, two thousand bushels of grain, clothing
for a regiment, one hundred hogsheads of rum, and one thousand
seven hundred and ninety tents^ Besides the destruction of
these articles, the enemy wantonly burned eighteen houses with
their furniture, murdered three unoffending inhabitants, and
threw them into the flames

16*

186 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

Generals Sullivan, Wooster, and Arnold, happening to be m
the neighborhood, hastily collected about six hundred militia, with
whom they marched in pursuit, in a heavy rain, as far as Bethel,
about two miles from Danbury. On the morning of the 27th of
April, the troops were divided, Gen. Wooster, with about three
hundred men, falling in the rear of the enemy, while Arnold
took post in front, at Ridgefield.

Gen. Wooster proceeded to attack the enemy, in which engage-
ment he was mortally wounded, and from which his troops were
compelled to retire. At Ridgefield, Arnold warmly received
the enemy on their retreat, and, although repulsed, returned to
the attack the next day on their march to the Sound. Finding
themselves continually annoyed by the resolute and courageous
yeomanry of the country through which they passed, they
hastened to embark on board their ships, in which they sailed for
New York. Their killed, wounded and missing, amounted to
about one hundred and seventy : the loss of the Americans was
not admitted to exceed one hundred. Gen. Wooster, now in his
seventieth year, lingered with his wounds until the 2d of May.
Congress resolved that a monument should be erected to his
memory. To Gen. Arnold they presented a horse, properly ca-
parisoned, as a reward for his gallantry on the occasion.

54. At length the British Gen. Howe, leaving New
Jersey, embarked at Sandy Hook, with sixteen thousand
men, and sailed for the Chesapeake. On the 14th of
August, he landed his troops, at the head of Elk river,
in Maryland.

It being now obvious that his design was the occupa-
tion of Philadelphia, Washington immediately put the
American army in motion towards that place, to pre-
vent, if possible, its falling into the hands of the enemy.

The two armies met at Brandywine, Delaware, on the
11th of September ; and after an engagement, which
continued nearly all day, the Americans were compelled
to retire.

The loss of the Americans in this action was estimated at three
hundred killed, and six hundred wounded. Between three and
four hundred, principally the wounded, were made prisoners.
The loss of the British was stated at less than one hundred killed,
and four hundred wounded.

In this battle several foreign officers greatly distinguished
themselves. Among these was the heroic Lafayette, who, un-
fortunately, while endeavoring to rally some fugitives, was wound
ed in the lea;.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 187

On the night following the battle, the Americans retired to
Chester, and the next day to Philadelphia. Not considering the
battle of Brandywine as decisive, congress, which was sitting
in Philadelphia, recommended to the commander-in-chief to risk
another engagement ; preparations for which were accordingly
made. Washington repassed the Schuylkill, and met the enemy
at Goshen, Sept. 16th. But a violent shower of rain occurring,
as the advanced guards began to skirmish, the powder in th8
cartridge-boxes of the Americans became wet, and the command-
er was compelled to withdraw his troops.

55. An easy access to Philadelphia being now present-
ed to the enemy, on the 26th, Howe entered the place
without molestation. The principal part of the British
army was stationed at Germantown, six miles from Phil-
adelphia. Congress adjourned to Lancaster, and Wash-
ington encamped at eighteen miles' distance from Ger-
mantown.

56. Immediately after the occupation of Philadelphia,
he attention of Gen. Howe was drawn to the reduction

of some forts on the Delaware, which rendered the nav-
igation of that river unsafe to the British. Accordingly,
a part of the royal army was detached for that purpose.
Washington seized the opportunity to attack the remain-
der at Germantown.

This attack was made Oct. 4th; but after a severe ac-
tion, the Americans were repulsed, with a loss of dou-
ble that of the British. The loss of the Americans was
two hundred killed, six hundred wounded, and four
hundred prisoners ; that of the British was about one
hundred killed and five hundred wounded.

After this action, the British removed to Philadelphia,
where they continued long inactive. Washington re-
treated to Skippack creek, eleven miles from German-
town, where he encamped.

Great was the chagrin- of Washington, on account of the re
pulse at Germantown, which was much increased by the auspi-
cious commencement of the battle, and the flattering prospect of
a speedy and complete victory. The ultimate failure of the
Americans was attributed to the inexperience of a part of the
troops, and to embarrassments arising from a fog, which increas-
ed the darkness of the night. Congress, however, expressed

[88 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

their approbation of Washington's plan of attack, and highly ap
plauded the courage and firmness of the troops.

57. While such was the progress of military opera-
tions in the Middle States, important events were taking
place in the north. It has already been noticed, (Sec. 28.)
that in May, 1775, Ticonderoga and Crown Point had
been taken by surprise, by Colonels Allen and Arnold ;
that in the ensuing fall, Gen. Montgomery had reduced
the fort of St. John's, (Sec. 32,) captured Montreal, and
made an ineffectual though desperate assault upon
Quebec.

On the return of spring, the American army gradual-
ly retired up the St. Lawrence, and after a loss of one
post and another, in June, 1776, entirely evacuated Can-
ada. (Sec. 33.)

In the spring of 1777, it was settled in England, that
an invasion of the States should be attempted from the
north, and a communication formed between Canada and
New York. Could such a plan have been executed, it
would obviously have precluded intercourse between
New England and the more southern states.

The execution of the plan was committed to Gen.
Burgoyne, who left Canada with seven thousand troops,
besides a powerful train of artillery, and several tribes
of Indians.

58. On the 1st of July, Burgoyne landed, and invest-
ed Ticonderoga. The American garrison here amount-
ed to three thousand men, under command of Gen. St.
Clair, an officer of high standing.

Deeming this force inadequate to maintain the post,
especially as Burgoyne had taken possession of Mount
Defiance, which commanded Ticonderoga, and not hav-
ing provisions to sustain the army for more than twenty
days, St. Clair perceived no safety for the garrison but
in a precipitate flight. Accordingly, on the night of the
5th, Ticonderoga was abandoned. By a circuitous
march, St. Clair continued to retreat, first into Vermont,
lit hough closely pursued, and thence to Hudson river,

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 181)

ivnere, after having lost one hundred and twenty pieces
of artillery, with a quantity of military stores, he joined
Gen. Schuyler, commanding the main army of the north.
After this junction, the whole army continued to retire
to Saratoga and Stillwater, and at length took post on
Van Shaick's Island, in the mouth of the Mohawk, on
the 18th of August.

59. After taking Ticonderoga, Gen. Burgoyne, with
the great body of his troops, proceeded up the lake, and
destroyed the American flotilla, and a considerable
quantity of baggage and stores, which had been deposit-
ed at Skeensborough. Having halted at this place for
nearly three weeks, he proceeded to Fort Edward, on
the Hudson, where he did not arrive until July 30th, his
way having been obstructed by Schuyler's army, which
felled a great number of trees across the road, and de-
molished the bridges, while on their retreat.

60. While Gen. Burgoyne lay at Fort Edward, a de-
tachment of his army, consisting of five hundred Eng-
lish and one hundred Indians, under Col. Baum, who
had been sent to seize a magazine of stores at Bennincr-
ton, in Vermont, was totally defeated, and Col. Baum
slain, by a party of Vermont troops called Green Moun-
tain Boys, and a detachment of New Hampshire militia,
under command of Gen. Stark.

Baum, on his arrival near Bennington, learning that the
Americans were strongly intrenched at that place, halted, and
despatched a messenger to Gen. Burgoyne, for a reinforce-
ment.

Gen. Stark, now on his march, with a body of New Hampshire
militia, to join Gen. Schuyler, receiving intelligence of Baum's
approach, altered his movement, and collected his force at Ben-
nington.

Before the expected reinforcement could arrive, Gen. Stark,
having added to his New Hampshire corps a body of Vermont
militia, determined to attack Baum in his intrenchments. Ac
cordingly, on the l(5th of August, an attack was made, which re-
sulted in the flight of Baum's detachment, at the moment in
which the reinforcement of troops, despatched by Gen. Burgoyne,
arrived. With the assistance of these, the battle was now re-
lieved, but ended in the discomfiture of the British forces, and

190 period v. — l?To to 17^3.

with a loss, on their part, of about seven hundred in killed and
ied. The loss of the Americans was about one hundred.

61. The battle at Bennington greatly revived the
courage of the Americans, and as greatly disappointed
: opes of Gen. Burgoyne, as it served materially to
embarrass and retard his movements.

The situation of this general, at this time, was seri
ously perplexing, being greatly in want of provisions, and
course of wisdom and prudence being not a little diffi-
cult to determine. To retreat was to abandon the ob-
ject of his expedition: to advance seemed replete with
iky and danger. This latter step, however, at
:. appeared the most judicious.
Ac tgly, on the loth and 14th of September, he

passed the Hudson, and advanced upon Saratoga and
Stillwater. On the 17th, his army came nearly in con-
tact with that of the Americans, now commanded by
Gen. Gates, who had succeeded Schuyler. August '21 :
some skirmishing ensued, without bringing on a oeneral
battle.

62. Two days after, the two armies met. and a most
Bate, though indecisive, en^ao;ement ensued, in

which the Americans lost, in killed and wounded, be-
tween three and four hundred, and the British about six
hundred.

On the 7th of October, the battle was renewed, bv a

movement of Gen. Burgoyne towards the left of the

Americans, by which he intended to effect his retreat to

the lakes. The battle was extremely severe : and dark-

s only put an end to the effusion of blood.

During the night which succeeded, an attempt was

made by the royal army to retreat to Fort Edward. —

sparing to march, intelligence was received

: was already in possession of the Americans.

venue to escape now appeared open. Worn down

stain toil and watching, and having ascertained

tint he had but three days' provisions, a council of war

wns called, which unanimously resolved to capitulate tc

WAR OP THE REVOLUTION. liM

Gen. Gates. Preliminaries were soon after settled, and
the army, consisting of five thousand seven hundred
effective men, surrendered prisoners of war on the Hth
of October.

Gen. Gates, immediately after the victory, despatched
Col. Wilkinson, to carry the happy tidings to congress.
On being introduced into the hall of congress, he said,
" The whole British army has laid down arms at Sarato-
ga; our sons, full of vigor and courage, expect your or-
ders ; it is for your wisclom to decide where the country
may still have need of their services."

63. It would be difficult to describe the transports of
joy, which the news of the surrender of Burgoyne ex-
cited among the Americans. They now began to look
forward to the future with sanguine hopes, and eagerly
expected the acknowledgment of their country's inde-
pendence by France and other European powers. The
capitulation of Gen. Burgoyne, at Saratoga, was soon
followed by an acknowledgment of the independence of
America at the court of France,* and the conclusion of
a formal treaty of alliance and commerce between the
two countries — an event highly auspicious to the inter-
ests of America. The treaty was signed Feb; (ith — -
" neither of the contracting powers to make war or
peace, without the formal consent of the other."

For more than a year, commissioners from congress, at the
head of whom was Dr. Franklin, had resided at the aoxa\ of
France, urging the above important measure. But the success
of the American struggle was yet too doubtful for that country
to embroil herself in a war with Great Britain. The capture of
the British army at Saratoga seemed to increase the probability
that the American arms would finally triumph, and decided
France to espouse her cause.

64. Upon the conclusion of the campaign of 1777, the
British army retired to winter quarters in Philadelphia,
and the American army at Valley Forge, on the Schuyl-
kill, fifteen miles from Philadelphia.

* Holland acknowledged the independence of the United States in i"
Sweden in February, 1783; Denmark in the same month ; Spain in March*
Russia in July.

192 period v. — 1775 to 1783.

Scarcely were the American troops established in their en
campment, which consisted of huts, before they were in danger
of a famine. The adjacent country was nearly exhausted, and
that which it might have spared, the inhabitants concealed in
the woods. At this time, also, bills of credit had fallen to one
fourth of their nominal value, so thai one hundred dollars, in
paper, would command no more than twenty-five dollars, in
specie. In addition to these scenes of perplexity and suffering,
the army was nearly destitute of comfortable clothing. Many,
for want of shoes, walked barefoot on the frozen ground ; few,
if any, had blankets for the night. Great numbers sickened.
Near three thousand at a time were incapable of bearing arms.
While the defenders of the country were thus suffering and per-
ishing, the royal army was enjoying all the conveniences which
an opulent city afforded

65. On the alliance of America with France, it was
resolved in Great Britain immediately to evacuate Phila-
delphia, and to concentrate the royal force in the city of
New York. In pursuance of this resolution, the royal
army, on the 18th of June, passed the Delaware, into
New Jersey, and continued their retreat to New York.

Gen. Washington, penetrating their design, had already sent
forward a detachment to aid the New Jersey militia in impeding
the progress of the enemy. With the main body of his army, he
now crossed the Delaware in pursuit. June 28th, the two armies
were engaged at Monmouth, sixty-four miles from Philadelphia,
and, after a severe contest, in which the Americans, upon the
whole, obtained the advantage, were separated only by night.
Gen. Washington and his army reposed on the field of battle,
intending to renew the attack in the morning. But the British

?eneral, during the night, made good his retreat towards New
ork.

The sufferings of both armies during this engagement, from
the heat of the day, were unparalleled in the history of the revo-
lutionary war. No less than fifty-nine British soldiers perished
from heat, and several of the Americans died through the same
cause. The tongues of many of the soldiers were so swollen,
that it. was impossible to retain them in the mouth. The loss of
the Americans was eight officers and sixty-one privates killed,
and about one hundred and sixty wounded; that of the British, in
killed, wounded, and missing, was three hundred and fifty-eight
men, including officers, One hundred were taken prisoners, and
one thousand deserted during the march.

66. On the 1st of July, Count D'Estaing arrived at
Newport, R. I., from France, with twelve ships of the

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 193

line and six frigates, to act in concert with the Ameri-
cans in an attempt on Rhode Island, which had been in
possession of the British since December, 1776.

Hearing of this expedition, Admiral Howe followed D'Estaing.
and arrived in eight of Rhode Island the day after the French
fleet had entered the harbor of Newport. On the appearance of
Howe, the French admiral, instead of co-operating with the
Americans, sailed out to give him battle. A storm, however,
arising, separated the fleets. D'Estaing entered Boston to repair.
Howe, after the storm, returned to Rhode Island, and landed
Sir Henry Clinton, with four thousand troops; but, fortunately,
the Americans had raised the siege of Newport the day before,
and left the island. Sir Henry Clinton soon after sailed again
for New York.

67. Hitherto the conquest of the States had been at-
tempted by proceeding from north to south ; but that
order, towards the close of this year, began to be invert-
ed, and the Southern States became the principal theatre
on which the British conducted their offensive opera-
tions.

Georgia, being one of the weakest of the Southern
States, was marked out as the first object of attack, in
that quarter of the Union.

In November, Col. Campbell was despatched from
New York by Gov. Clinton, with a force of two thou-
sand men, against Savannah, the capital of that state.
This expedition proved successful, and Savannah, and
with it the state of Georgia itself, fell into the power of
the English.

On the arrival of Campbell and his troops at Savannah, he was
opposed by Gen. Howe, the American officer, to whom was in-
trusted the defence of Georgia. His force, consisting of only
six hundred continentals, and a few hundred militia, was inade-
quate, however, to resist the enemy. After an engagement, in
which the Americans killed upwards of one hundred, and took
about four hundred and fifty prisoners, with several cannon, and
large quantities of military stores, the capital surrendered.

In the succeeding year, 1779, Count D'Estaing, who, after re-
pairing his fleet at Boston, had sailed f )r the West Indies, re-
turned, with a design to co-operate with the Americans againsl
the common enemy. In Sept. he arrived upon the coast of
Georgia so'unexpectedlv, that the Experiment, a man-of-war of
17

194 period v.— 1775 to 1783

fifty guns, and three frigates, fell into his hands. As soon as his
arrival was known, Gen. Lincoln marched with the army under
his command, and a body of militia of South Carolina and Geor-
gia, to co-operate with him in the reduction of Savannah. Be-
fore Lincoln arrived, D'Estaing demanded the surrender of the
town. This demand, Gen. Prevost, the English commander,
requested a day to consider, which was incautiously granted.
Before the day expired, a reinforcement of eight hundred men
joined the standard of Prevost from Beaufort, whereupon he bid
defiance to D'Estaing. On the arrival of Lincoln, it was deter-
mined to lay siege to the place. Much time was spent in prepara-
tion ; but in an assault under D'Estaing and Lincoln, the Ameri-
cans suffered so severely, both as to their number and in their
works, that it was deemed expedient to abandon the project.
Count D'Evtaing re-embarked his troops, and left the continent.

68. The campaign of 1779 was distinguished for
nothing splendid, or decisive, on the part either of
America or England.

The British seemed to have aimed at little more than
to distress, plunder, and consume, it having been, early
in the year, adopted as a principle upon which to pro-
ceed, "to render the colonies of as little avail as possible
to their new connections."

Actuated by these motives, an expedition was fitted
out from New York for Virginia, which, in a predatory
incursion, took possession of large naval stores, maga-
zines of provisions, and great quantities of tobacco. Af-
ter enriching themselves with various kinds of booty,
and burning several places, they returned to New York.

Soon after this expedition to Virginia, a similar one,
under the command of the infamous Gov. Tryon, was
projected against the maritime parts of Connecticut.
During; this expedition, New Haven was plundered ;
East Haven, Fairfield, Norwalk, and Green's Farms,
were wantonly burnt.

In an account of the devastations made by the English in this
expedition, which was transmitted to congress, it appeared that
at Fairfield there were burnt two houses of public worship, fifteen
dwelling-houses, eleven barns, and several stores; at Norwalk,
two houses of public worship, eighty dwelling-houses, sixty-seven
barns, twenty-two stores, seventeen shops, four mills, and five
vessels. In addition to this wanton destruction of property, va-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.

19i

nous were the acts of brutality, rapine, and cruelty, committed
on aged persons, women, and prisoners. At New Haven, an
aged citizen, who labored under a natural inability of speech, had
his tongue cut out by one of the royal army. At Fairfield, the
deserted houses of the inhabitants were entered ; desks, trunks,
closets, and chests, were broken open, and robbed of every thing
valuable. Women were insulted, abused, and threatened, while
their apparel was taken from them. Even an infant was robbed
of its clothes, while a bayonet was pointed at the breast of its
mother.

About this time, Gen. Putnam, who had been stationed with a
respectable force at Reading, in Connecticut, then on a visit to
his out-post, at Horse Neck, was attacked by Gov. Tryon, with
one thousand five hundred men. Putnam had only a picket of
one hundred and fifty men, and two field-pieces, without horses
or drag-ropes. He, however, placed his cannon on the high
ground, near the meeting-house, and continued to pour in upon
the advancing foe, until the enemy's horse appeared upon a
charge. The general now hastily ordered his men to retreat to
a neighboring swamp, inaccessible to horse, while he himself put
spurs to his steed, and plunged down the precipice at the church

This is so steep, as to have artificial stairs, composed of nearly
one hundred stone steps, for the accommodation of worshippers
ascending to the sanctuary. On the arrival of the dragoons at

196 period v. — 1775 to 1783.

the brow of the hill, they paused, thinking it too dangerous t<t
follow the steps of the adventurous hero. Before any enuld go
round the hill, and descend, Putnam had escaped, uninjured by
the many balls which were fired at him in his descent; but one
touched him, and that only passed through his hat. He proceed-
ed to Stamford, where, having strengthened his picket with some
militia, he boldly faced about, and pursued Gov. Tryon on his re-
turn.

09. The exertions of the Americans, during this cam-
paign, were still more feeble than those of the enemy.
Scarcely an expedition was planned which merits any
notice, and, with the exception of the reduction of Stony
Point, forty miles north of New York, on the Hudson,
scarcely any thing was accomplished of importance.
The reduction of this place, July 15th, was one of the
boldest enterprises which occurred in the history of
the war.

At this time, Stony Point was in the condition of a real for-
tress ; it was furnished with a select garrison of more than six
hundred men, and had stores in abundance, and defensive prep-
arations which were formidable.

Fortified as it was, Gen. Washington ventured an attempt to
reduce it. The enterprise was committed to Gen. Wayne, who,
with a strong detachment of active infantry, set out towards the
place at noon. His march of fourteen miles, over high moun-
tains, through deep morasses, and difficult defiles, was accom-
plished by eight o'clock in the evening.

At the distance of a mile from the Point, Gen. Wayne halted,
and formed his men into two columns, putting himself at the
head of the right. Both columns were directed to march in or-
der and silence, with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets. At
midnight, they arrived under the walls of the fort. An unexpect-
ed obstacle now presented itself: the deep morass, which cover-
ed the works, was, at this time, overflowed by the tide. The
English opened a tremendous fire of musketry and of cannon
loaded with grape-shot : but neither the inundated morass, nor a
double palisade, nor the storm of fire that was poured upon them,
could arrest the impetuosity of the Americans : they opened
their way with the bayonet, prostrated whatever opposed them,
scaled the fort, and the two columns met in the centre of the
works. The English lost upwards of six hundred men in killed
and prisoners. The conquerors abstained from pillage, and from
all disorder — a conduct the more worthy, as they had still present
in mind the ravages and butcheries which their enemies had sc
recently committed in Virginia and Connecticut. Humanity

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 197

imparted new effulgence to the victory which valor had ob-
tained.

70. Another expedition, planned and executed this
year, entitled to some notice, was one under Gen. Sul-
livan, against the Six Nations, which, with the exception
of the Oneidas, had been induced by the English to
take up arms against America.

At the head of between four and five thousand men,
Gen. Sullivan marched into the country, up the Susque-
hannah, and attacked the Indians, in well-constructed
fortifications. The resistance of the savages was war-
like. Being overpowered, however, they were obliged
to flee. Gen. Sullivan, according to his instructions,
proceeded to lay waste their country. Forty villages
were consumed, and one hundred and sixty thousand
bushels of corn were destroyed.

71. It has already been stated, that the campaign of
1779 was remarkable for the feeble exertions of the
Americans. Among the causes which contributed to
lessen their activity, the failure of the French fleet, in
every scheme undertaken for their benefit, was no in-
considerable one. America had expected much from
an alliance with France, and looked to the French fleet
under D'Estaing to hasten the downfall of British pow-
er in the country. But when they perceived nothing
equal to their expectation accomplished, they became
despondent, and exertion was enfeebled.

But another, and a still more powerful cause of these
feeble exertions, on the part of the Americans, was the
daily depreciation of their bills of credit.

Bills of credit were first issued by congress in June, J 775, to
the amount of two millions of dollars. At the expiration of
eighteen months, twenty millions had been issued. By the year
1780} the amount in circulation was two hundred millions. For
their redemption, the confederated colonies were pledged — each
colony to provide means to pay its proportion by the }'ear 1779.

At an early period, these bills began to depreciate. The

progress of this depreciation is worthy of notice. Towards the

close of 1777, the depreciation was two or three for one ; in '78,

fivf or six for one ; in '79, twenty-seven or twenty-eight for one,-

17*

193 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

in '80, fifty or sixty for one, in the first four or five monfhs
From this date, the circulation of these bills was limited; but
where they passed, they soon depreciated to one hundred ant1
fifty for one, and, finally, several hundreds for one.

Several causes contributed to sink the value of the continental
currency. The excess of its quantity at first begat a natural de-
preciation. This was increased by the enemv, who counterfeit-
ed the bills, and spread their forgeries through the States. Pub-
lic agents, who received a commission to the amount of their
purchases, felt it to be their interest to give a high price for all
commodities. These causes, co-operating with the decline of
public confidence, and the return of more selfish feelings, rapid-
ly increased the depreciation, until bills of credit, or what haa
been commonly called " continental currency," became of little
or no value.

The evils which resulted from this system were immense.
Under it, it became extremely difficult to raise an army, and to
provide necessaries for its subsistence. At the same time, it
originated discontents among the officers and soldiers, since their
pay, in this depreciated currency, was inadequate to the support
of therr families at home. " Four months' pay of a private
would not procure his family a single bushel of wheat; and the
pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse." Un-
der circumstances like these, it reflects the highest honor upon
Washington, that his wisdom and prudence should have "been
able to keep an army together.

72. Towards the close of the year 1779, Sir Henry
Clinton, committing the English garrison of New York
to Gen. Kniphausen, embarked with a force of between
seven and eight thousand men, for the reduction of
Charleston, South Carolina, which important object h<»
accomplished on the 12th of May, 1780.

After a tempestuous voyage of some weeks, in which several
transports were lost, the army arrived at Savannah, whence they
sailed on their destined purpose. On the 2d of April, 1760, Gen
Clinton opened his batteries against Charleston. Gen. Lincoln
at this time, commanded the American forces of the south.
Urged by the inhabitants, on the approach of the enemy, to con-
tinue in Charleston, and assist in repelling the attack, he con-
sented to remain, and, with Gov. Rutledge, industriously for-
warded preparations for defence.

Notwithstanding these preparations, the batteries of the ene^
my soon obtained a decided superiority over those of the town,
^nd left but little reason to the besieged to hope that they should
ho able to defend the place. A council of war, held on the 2Jst,

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 199

agreed that a retreat would probably be impracticable, and ad-
vised that offers of capitulation should be made to Gen. Clinton,
which might admit of the army's withdrawing, and afford secu-
rity to the persons and property of the inhabitants.

On the proposal of these terms, they were rejected. Hostili-
ties were now renewed by the garrison, and returned with unu-
sual ardor by the British. On the 11th of May, finding the
longer defence of the place impracticable, a number of citizena
addressed Gen. Lincoln, advising him to capitulate. Acqui-
escing in the measure, painful as it was, Gen. Lincoln again pre-
sented terms of capitulation, which being accepted, the Ameri-
can army, amounting to 5000, together with the inhabitants of
the place, and four hundred pieces of artillery, were surrendered
to the British.

The loss on both sides, during the siege, was nearly equal.
Of the royal troops, seventy-six were killed, and one hundred
and eighty-nine wounded. Of the Americans, eighty-nine were
killed, and one hundred and forty wounded. By the articles of
capitulation, the garrison was to march out of town, and to de-
posit their arms in front of the works; but, as a mark of humilia-
tion, which, eighteen months afterwards, was remembered and
retaliated on Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, the drums were not
to beat a British march, nor the colors to be uncased.

73. Shortly after the surrender of Charleston, Sir
Henry Clinton, leaving four thousand men for the south-
ern service, under Lord Cornwallis, returned to New
York. British garrisons were now posted in different parts
of the state of South Carolina, to awe the inhabitants, and
to secure their submission to the British government.

The spirit of freedom, however, still remained with
the people ; nor was it easy to subdue that spirit, how
much soever it might be temporarily repressed by royal
and oppressive menace.

Notwithstanding the efforts of his majesty's servants
to preserve quietness, the month of July did not pass by
in peace. Gen. Sumpter, a man ardently attached to
the cause of liberty, in several engagements in South
Carolina, with the English and their partisans, gained
great advantages over them, and, in one instance, re-
duced a regiment — the prince of Wales's — from two hun-
dred and seventy-eight to nine.

While Sumpter was thus keeping up the spirits of the

200 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

people by a succession of gallant exploits, a respectable
force was advancing through the Middle States, for the
relief of their southern brethren.

74. The southern army, now placed under the com-
mand of Gates, the hero of Saratoga, Gen. Lincoln hav-
ing been superseded, amounted to four thousand; but,
of these, scarcely one thousand were regular troops, the
rest consisting of militia, from North Carolina, Mary-
land, and Virginia.

As this army approached South Carolina, Lord Raw-
don, who commanded on the frontier, under Lord Corn-
wallis, concentrated the royal forces, two thousand in
number, at Camden, one hundred and twenty miles
north-west from Charleston. Here Cornwallis, on learn
ing the movements of the Americans, joined him.

On the morning of the 16th of August, the two armies
met, and a severe and general action ensued, in which,
through the unpardonable failure of the militia, the Brit-
ish gained a decided advantage.

At the first onset, a large body of the Virginia militia, under a
charge of the British infantry with fixed bayonets, threw down
their arms, and fled. A considerable part of the North Carolina
militia followed their unworthy example. But the continental
troops evinced the most unyielding firmness, and pressed forward
with unusual ardor. Never did men acquit themselves more
honorably. They submitted only when forsaken by their breth-
ren in arms, and when overpowered by numbers.

In this battle, the brave Baron de Kalb, second in command,
at the head of the Marylanders, fell, covered with wounds, which
he survived only a few days. De Kalb was a German by birth,
and had formerly served in the armies of the French. In con-
sideration of his distinguished merit, as an officer and soldier,
congress resolved that a ^monument should be erected to hia
memory at Annapolis. f—

The battle of Camden was exceedingly bloody. The field of
battle, the road and swamps, for some distance, were covered with
wounded and slain. The number of Americans killed, although
not certain, probably amounted to between six and seven hun-
dred, and the wounded and prisoners to one thousand three hun-
dred, or cue thousand four hundred. The British stated their
loss to be only three hundred and twenty-four, in killed and
wounded ; but it was probably much greater.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 201

75. The disaster of the army under Gen. Gates,
overspread, at first, the face of American affairs, with a
dismal gloom ; but the day of prosperity to the United
States began, as will appear in the sequel, from that
moment, to dawn.

Their prospects brightened, while those of their ene-
mies were obscured by disgrace, broken- by defeat, and,
at last, covered with ruin. Elated with their victories,
the conquerors grew more insolent and rapacious, while
the real friends of independence became resolute and
determined.

76. While the campaign of 1780 was thus filled up
with important events in the southern department, it
passed away, in the Northern States, in successive disap-
pointments, and reiterated distresses.

In June, a body of five thousand of the enemy, un-
der Gen. Kniphausen, entered New Jersey, and, in ad-
dition to plundering the country, wantonly burnt several
villages.

On the arrival of this body at Connecticut Farms, a small
settlement, containing about a dozen houses and a church, they
burnt the whole. At this place there resided a Presbyterian
minister, by the name of Caldwell, who had taken a conspicuous
part in the cause of freedom, and who had, of course, incurred
the deep displeasure of Gen. Kniphausen. Supposing, however,
that the general's resentment would be confined to him, and that
his family would be safe, on the approach of the enemy, he hasti-
ly withdrew, leaving his wife and children to their mercy. Col.
Drayton had previously withdrawn the militia from the place,
that there might be no pretext for enormities ; but the British
soldiers, in the American war, did not wait for pretexts to be
cruel. Mrs. Caldwell was shot in the midst of her children, by
a villain, who walked up to the window of the room in which
she was sitting, and took deliberate aim with his musket. This
atrocious act was attempted to be excused as an accident, as a
random shot ; but the attempt at palliation served only to in-
crease the crime.

77. Besides these predatory incursions, by which the
inhabitants suffered alarm, distress, and destruction of
property, they suffered greatly, also, from the constantly
diminishing value of their paper currency, and from
unfavorable crops.

202 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

The situation of Gen. Washington, often, during the war, era
barrassing, had been distressing through the winter, in his en.
campment at Morristown. The cold was more intense than it
had ever been known to be before in this climate, within the
memory of the oldest inhabitant. The winter, to this day, bears
the distinctive epithet of the hard winter. The army suffered
extremely ; and often had Washington the prospect before him
of being obliged to break up his encampment, and disband his
soldiers.

The return of spring brought little alleviation to their distress.
Great disorder pervaded the departments for supplying the army.
Abuses crept in, frauds were practised, and, notwithstanding the
poverty of the country, econoni}'-, on the part of the commission-
ers, was exiled.

In May, a committee from congress visited the army, and re-
ported to that body an account of the distresses and disorders
conspicuously prevalent. In particular, they stated, " that the
army was unpaid for five months ; that it seldom had more than
six days' provisions in advance, and was, on several occasions,
for sundry successive days, without meat ; that the medical de-
partment had neither sugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, wine, nor
spirituous liquors of any kind; and that every department of
the army was without money, and had not even the shadow of
credit left."

78. But, under all this tide of evils, there appeared no
disposition, in public bodies, to purchase their relief by
concession. They seemed, on the contrary, to rise in
the midst of their distresses, and to gain firmness and
strength by the pressure of calamity.

79. Fortunately for the Americans, as it seemed, M.
de Ternay arrived at Rhode Island, July 10th, from
France, with a squadron of seven sail of the line, five
frigates, and five smaller armed vessels, with several
transports, and six thousand men, all under command
of Lieutenant-General Count de Rochambeau. Great
was the joy excited by this event, and high-raised ex-
pectations were indulged from the assistance of so pow-
erful a force against the enemy. But the British fleet
in our waters was still superior ; and that of the French,
and the French army, were, for a considerable time,
incapacitated from co-operating with the Americans, by
being blocked up at Rhode Island.

The arrival of the French fleet at Newport was greeted by ths
citizens with every demonstration of joy. The town was illu-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. '203

minated, and congratulatory addresses were exchanged. As a
symbol of friendship and affection for the allies, Gen. Washing
ton recommended to the American officers to wear black and
white cockades, the ground to be of the first color, and the re-
lief of the second.

80. The fortress of West Point, on the Hudson, sixty
miles north of New York, and its importance to the
Americans, have already been noticed. Of this fortress
Gen. Arnold had solicited and obtained the command.
Soon after assuming the command, Arnold entered into
negotiations with Sir Henry Clinton, to make such a dispo-
sition of the forces in the fortress, as that the latter might
easily take possession of it by surprise. Fortunately
for America, this base plot was seasonably discovered
to prevent the ruinous consequences that must have fol-
lowed. Arnold, however, escaped to the enemy loaded
with infamy and disgrace. Andre, the agent of the
British in this negotiation, was taken, and justly expi-
ated his crime on the gallows, as a spy.

Major Andre, at this time adjutant-general of the British army,
was an officer extremely young, but high-minded, brave, and ac-
complished. He was transported, in a vessel called the Vulture,
up the North river, as near to West Point as was practicable,
without exciting suspicion. On the 21st of September, at night,
a boat was sent from the shore, to bring him. On its return, Ar-
nold met him at the beach, without the posts of either army.
Their business was not finished till too near the dawn of day
for Andre to return to the Vulture. He, therefore, lay concealed
within the American lines. During the day, the Vulture found
it necessary to change her position; and Andre, not being able
now to get on board, was compelled to attempt his return to New
York by land.

Having changed his military dress for a plain coat, and receiv-
ing a passport from Arnold, under the assumed name of John
Anderson, he passed the guards and outposts, without suspicion.
On his arrival at Tarry town, a village thirty miles north of New
York, in the vicinity of the first British posts, he was met by
three militia soldiers — John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac
Van Wert. He showed them his passport, and they suffered him
to continue his route. Immediately after this, one of these three
men, thinking that he perceived something singular in the per-
son of the traveller, called him back. Andre asked them where
they were from. " From down below," they replied, intending
to say, from New York. Too frank to suspect a snare, Andre
immediately answered, " And so am I."

204

period v. — 1775 to 1783.

Upon this, they arrested him, when he declared himself to be a
British officer, and offered them his watch, and all the gold he
had with him, to be released. These soldiers were poor and ob-
scure, but they were not to be bribed. Resolutely refusing his
offers, they conducted him to Lieutenant-Col. Jameson, their com-
manding officer.

Jameson injudiciously permitted Andre, still calling himself
Anderson, to write to Arnold, who immediately escaped on board
the Vulture, and took refuge in New York.

Washington, on his way to head-quarters, from Connecticut,
where he had been to confer with Count de Rochambeau, provi-
dentially happened to be at West Point just at this time. After
taking measures to insure the safety of the fort, he appointed a
board, of which Gen. Greene was president, to decide upon the
condition and punishment of Andre.

After a patient hearing of the case, September 29th, in which
every feeling of kindness, liberality, and generous sympathy, was
strongly evinced, the board, upon his own confession, unani-
mously pronounced Andre a spy, and declared that, agreeably to
the laws and usages of nations, he ought to suffer death.

Major Andre had many friends in the American army ; and
even Washington would have spared him, had duty to his
country permitted. Every possible effort was made by Sir Hen-
ry Clinton in his favor ; but it was deemed important that the de

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 205

cision of the board of war should be carried into execution
When Major Andre was apprized of the sentence of death, he
made a last appeal, in a letter to Washington, that he might be
shot, rather than die on a gibbet.

" Buoyed above the terrors of death," said he, "by the con-
sciousness of a life devoted to honorable pursuits, and stained
with no action that can give me remorse, I trust that the request
I make to your excellency at this serious period, and which is to
soften my last moments, will not be rejected. Sympathy towarda
a soldier will surely induce your excellency, and a military tribunal,
to adapt the mode of my death to the feelings of a man of honor
Let me hope, sir, that, if aught in my character impresses you
with esteem towards me, as a victim of policy and not of resent-
ment, I shall experience the operation of those feelings in your
breast, by being informed that I am not to die on a gibbet."

This letter of Andre roused the sympathies of Washington ;
and had he only been concerned, the prisoner would have been
pardoned and released. But the interests of his country were at
stake, and the sternness of justice demanded that private feelings
should be sacrificed. Upon consulting his officers, on the pro-
priety of Major Andre's request, to receive the death of a sol-
dier,— to be shot, — it was deemed necessary to deny it, and to
make him an example. On the 2d of October, this unfortunate
young man expired on the gallows, while foes and friends uni-
versally lamented his untimely end.

As a reward to Paulding, Williams and Van Wert, for their
virtuous and patriotic conduct, congress voted to each of them
an annuity of two hundred dollars, and a silver medal, on one
side of which was a shield with this inscription — " Fidelity," —
and on the other, the following motto — " Vincit amor ■patriae.''' —
the love of country conquers.

Arnold, the miserable wretch, whose machinations led to the
melancholy fate Andre experienced, escaped to New York,
where, as the price of his dishonor, he received the commission
of brigadier- general, and the sum of ten thousand pounds sterling.
This last boon was the grand secret of Arnold's fall from virtue ;
his vanity and extravagance had led him into expenses which it
was neither in the power nor will of congress to support. Ho
had involved himself in debt, from which he saw no hope of
extricating himself; and his honor, therefore, was bartered foi
British gold.

81. Gen. Washington, having learned whither Arnold
had fled, deemed it possible still to take him, and to
bring him to the just reward of his treachery. To ac-
complish an object so desirable, and, at the same time,
in so doing, to save Andre, Washington devised a plan
18

206 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

vv-hich, although it ultimately failed, evinced the ca«
pacity of his mind, and his unwearied ardor for his
country's good.

Having matured the plan, Washington sent to Major Lee to
repair to head-quarters, at Tappan, on the Hudson. " I have
sent for you," said Gen. Washington, " in the expectation that you
have some one in your corps, who is willing to undertake a del-
icate and hazardous project. Whoever comes forward will confer
great obligation upon me personally, and, in behalf of the United
States, I will reward him amply. No time is to be lost : he must
proceed, if possible, to-night. I intend to seize Arnold, and save
Andre."

Major Lee named a sergeant-major of his corps, by the name
of Champc, a native of Virginia, a man full of bone and muscle,
with a countenance grave, thoughtful, and taciturn — -of tried
courage, and inflexible perseverance.

Champe was sent for by Major Lee, and the plan proposed. This
was for him to desert — to escape to New York — to appear friendly
to the enemy — to watch Arnold, and, upon some fit opportunity,
with the assistance of some one whom Champe could trust, to
seize him, and conduct him to a place on the river, appointed,
where boats should be in readiness to bear them away.

Champe listened to the plan attentively, but, with the spirit
of a man of honor and integrity, replied, " that it was not
danger nor difficulty that deterred him from immediately accept-
ing the proposal, but the ignominy of desertion, and the hypocrisy
of enlisting with the c-nemy ! "

To these objections Lee replied, that although he would ap-
pear to desert, yet, as he obe}Ted the call of his commander-in-
chief, his departure could not be considered as criminal, and that,
if he suffered in reputation for a time, the matter would one day
be explained to his credit. As to the second objection, it was
urged, that to bring such a man as Arnold to justice — loaded
with guilt as he was — and to save Andre — so young, so ac
complished, so beloved — to achieve so much good in the cause
of his country — was more than sufficient to balance a wrong, ex-
isting only in appearance.

The objections of Champe were at length surmounted, and he
accepted the service. It was now eleven o'clock at night. With
his instructions in his pocket, the sergeant returned to camp,
and, taking his cloak, valise, and orderly-book, drew his horse
from the picket, and mounted, putting himself upon fortune.

Scarcely had half an hour e'apsed, before Capt. Carnes, the
officer of the day, waited upon Lee, who was vainly attempting
lo rest, and informed him, that one of the patrol had fallen in
with a dragoon, who, being challenged, put spurs to his horse
end escaped. Lee. hoping to conceal the flight of Olutmpe. oi
8' least to delay pursuit, complained of fatigue, and tcld tho

U'AJl OF TtFE REVOLUTION.

aapuin that the patrol had probably mistaken a countryman for a
dragoon. Games, however, was not thus tobe quieted; and he with-
drew to assemble his corps. On examination, it was found that
Champe was absent. The captain now returned, and acquainted
Lee with the discovery, adding, that he had detached a party to
pursue the deserter, and begged the major's written orders.

After making as much delay as practicable, without exciting
suspicion, Lee delivers his orders — in which he directed the
party to take Champe if possible. " Bring him alive," said he,
" that he may suffer in the presence of the army; but kill him if
he resists, or if he escapes after being taken."

A shower of rain fell soon after Champe's departure, which
enabled the pursuing dragoons to take the trail of his horse, his
shoes, in common with those of the horses of the army, being
made in a peculiar form, and each having a private mark, which
was to be seen in the path.

Middleton, the leader of the pursuing party, left the camp a few
minutes past twelve, so that Champe had the start of but little
more than an hour — a period by far shorter than had been con-
templated. During the night, the dragoons were often delayed in
the necessary halts to examine the road ; but, on the coming
of morning, the impression of the horse's shoes was so apparent,
that they pressed on with rapidity. Some miles above Be«*ren,
a village three miles north of New York, on the opposite side of

the Hudson, on ascending a hill. Champe was descried, not more
than half a mile distant. Fortunately, Champe descried his

208 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

pursuers at the same moment, and, conjecturing their object, put
spurs to his horse, with the hope of escape.

By taking a different road, Champe was, for a time, lost sight
of; but. on approaching the river, he was again descried. Aware
of his danger, he now lashed his valise, containing his clothes and
orderly-book, to his shoulders, and prepared himself to plunge
into the river, if necessary.

Swift was his flight, and swift the pursuit. Middleton and
his party were*within a few hundred yards, when Champe threw
himself from his horse, and plunged into the river, calling aloud
upon some British galleys, at no great distance, for help. A
boat was instantly despatched to the sergeant's assistance, and a
fire commenced upon the pursuers. Champe was taken on board,
and soon after carried to New York, with a letter from the captain
of the galley, stating the past scene, all of which he had
witnessed.

The pursuers, having recovered the sergeant's horse and cloak
returned to camp, where they arrived about three o'clock the
next dajr. On their appearance with the well-known horse, the
soldiers made the air resound with acclamations that the scoun
drel was killed. The agony of Lee, for a moment, was past de-
scription, lest the faithful, honorable, intrepid Champe had fall-
en. But the troth soon relieved his fears, and he repaired to
Washington to impart to him the success, thus far, of his plan.

Soon after the arrival of Champe in New York, he was sent to
Sir Henry Clinton, who treated him kindly, but detained him
more than an hour in asking him questions, to answer some of
which, without exciting suspicion, required all the art the ser-
geant was master of. He succeeded, however, and Sir Henry
gave him a couple of guineas, and recommended him to Arnold,
who was wishing to procure American recruits. Arnold received
him kindly, and proposed to him to join his legion ; Champe,
however, expressed his wish to retire from war ; but assured the
general, that, if he should change his mind, he would enlist.

Champe found means to communicate to Lee an account of
his adventures ; but, unfortunately, he could not succeed in taking
Arnold, as was wished, before the execution of Andre. Ten
days before Champe brought his project to a conclusion, Lee re-
ceived from him his final communication, appointing the third
subsequent night for a party of dragoons to meet him at Hoboken,
opposite New York, when he hoped to deliver Arnold to the
officers.

Champe had enlisted into Arnold's legion, from which time
he had every opportunity he could wish to attend to the habits
of the general. He discovered that it was his custom to return
home about twelve every night, and that, previously to going to
bed, he always visited the garden. During this visit, the conspir-
ator's were to seize him and, being prepared with a gag, they
were to apply the same instantly.

WAR. OF THE REVOLUTION. 209

Adjoining the house in which Arnold resided, and in which it
was designed to seize and gag him,Champe had taken off several
of the palings, and replaced them, so that, with ease, and without
noise, he could readily open his way to the adjoining alley. Into
this alley he intended to convey his prisoner, aided by his com-
panion, one of two associates, who had been introduced by the
friend to whom Champe had been originally made known by
letter from the commander-in-chief, and with whose aid and
counsel he had so far conducted the enterprise. His other as-
sociate was, with the boat, prepared at one of the wharves on the
Hudson river to receive the party.

Champe and his friend intended to place themselves each un-
der Arnold's shoulder, and thus to bear him through the most
unfrequented alleys and streets to the boat, representing Arnold,
in case of being questioned, as a drunken soldier, whom they
were conveying to the guard-house.

When arrived at the boat, the difficulties would be all sur-
mounted, there being no danger nor obstacle in passing to the
Jersey shore. These particulars, as soon as made known to Lee,
were communicated to the commander-in-chief, who was highly
gratified with the much-desired intelligence. He desired Major
Lee to meet Champe, and to take care that Arnold should not
be hurt.

The day arrived, and Lee, with a party of accoutred horses,
(one for Armcld, one for the sergeant, and the third for his asso-
ciate, who was to assist in securing Arnold,) left the camp, never
doubting the success of the enterprise, from the tenor of the
last-received communication. The party reached Hoboken about
midnight, where they were concealed in the adjoining wood —
Lee, with three dragoons, stationing himself near the shore of
the river. Hour after hour passed, but no boat approached.

At length the da}r broke, and the major retired to his party,
and, with his led horses, returned to the camp, where he pro-
ceeded to head-quarters to inform the general of the much-la-
mented disappointment, as mortifying as inexplicable. Wash-
ington, having perused Champe's plan and communication, had
indulged the presumption, that, at length, the object of his keen
and constant pursuit was sure of execution, and did not dissemble
the joy which such a conviction produced. He was chagrined
at the issue, and apprehended that his faithful sergeant must
have been detected in the last scene of his tedious and difficult
enterprise.

In a few days, Lee received an anonymous letter from Champe's
patron and friend, informing him that, on the day preceding the
night fixed for the execution of the plot, Arnold had removed
his quarters to another part of the town, to superintend the em
barkation of troops, preparing, as was rumored, for an expedition
to be directed by himself; and that the American legion, con
18*

210 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

sisting chiefly of American deserters, had been transferred from
their barracks to one of the transports, it being apprehended that,
if left on shore until the expedition was ready, many of them
might desert.

Ihus it happened that John Champe, instead of crossing the
Hudson that night, was safely deposited on board one of the flget
of transports, from whence he never departed, until the troops
under Arnold landed in Virginia. Nor was he able to escape
from the British army, until after the junction of Lord Corn-
wallis at Petersburg, when he deserted ; and, proceeding high
up into Virginia, he passed into North Carolina, near the Saura
towns, and, keeping in the friendly districts of that state, safely
joined the army soon after it had passed the Congaree,in pursuit
of Lord Rawdon.

His appearance excited extreme surprise among his former
comrades, which was not a little increased, when they saw the
cordial reception he met with from the late Major, now Lieut.-
Col. Lee. His whole stor}' was soon known to the corps, which
reproduced the love and respect of officers and soldiers, hereto-
fore invariably entertained for the sergeant, heightened by uni-
versal admiration of his late daring and arduous attempt.

Champe was introduced to Gen. Greene, who very cheerfully
complied with the promise made by the commander-in-chief, so
far as in his power; and, having provided the sergeant with a
good horse and money for his journey, sent him to Gen. Wash-
ington, who munificently anticipated every desire of the ser-
geant, and presented him with a discharge from further service,
lest he might, in the vicissitudes of war, fall into the hands of
the enemy, when, if recognized, he was sure to die on a gibbet.

We shall only add, respecting the after life of this interesting
adventurer, that when Gen. Washington was called by President
Adams, in 1798, to the command of the army, prepared to de-
fend the country against French hostility, he sent to Lieut. -Col.
Lee, to inquire for Champe, being determined to bring him into
the field at the head of a company of infantry. Lee sent to Lou-
don county, Virginia, where Champe settled after his discharge
from the army ; when he learned, that the gallant soldier had
removed to Kentucky, where he soon after died.*

82. The year 1781 opened with an event extremely
afflicting to Gen. Washington, and which, for a time,
seriously endangered the American army. This was
the revolt of the whole Pennsylvania line of troops, at
Morristown, to the number of one thousand three hun-
dred. The cause of this mutiny was want of pay, cloth*

* Lee's Memoirs.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 21 J

ing, and provisions. Upon examination of the griev-
ances of the troops, by a committee from congress, their
complaints were considered to be founded in justice.
Upon their being redressed, the troops whose time of
service had expired, returned home, and the rest cheer-
fully repaired again to camp.

Gen. Wayne, who commanded these troops, and who was
greatly respected by them, used every exertion to quiet them,
but in vain. In the ardor of remonstrance with them, he cocked
his pistol, and turned towards them. Instantly, a hundred bayo-
nets, were directed towards him, and the men cried out, " We love
you, we respect you; but you are a dead man, if you fire. Do
not mistake us ; we are not going to the enemy. On the con-
trary, were they now to come out, you should see us fight under
your orders with as much resolution and alacrity as ever."

Leaving the camp, the mutineers proceeded in a body to
Princeton. Thither Sir Henry Clinton, who had heard of the
revolt, sent agents to induce them to come over to the British,
with the promise of large rewards.

But these soldiers loved their country's cause too well to listen
to proposals so reproachful. They were suffering privations
which could no longer be sustained ; but they spurned with dis-
dain the offer of the enemy. They also seized the agents of the
British, and nobly delivered them up to Gen. Wayne, to be treat-
ed as spies.

83. In the midst of these troubles, arising from dis-
contents of the troops, news arrived of great depredations
in Virginia, by Arnold, who had left New York for the
south, with one thousand six hundred men, and a num-
ber of armed vessels. Extensive outrages were commit-
ted by these troops in that part of the country. Large
quantities of tobacco, salt, rum, &c, were destroyed.
In this manner did Arnold show the change of spirit
which had taken place in his breast, and his fidelity to
his new engagements.

Upon receiving news of these depredations, at the request
of Gen. Washington, a French squadron, from Rhode Island,
was sent to cut off Arnold's retreat. Ten of his vessels were
destroyed, and a forty-four gun ship was captured. Shortly after
this, an engagement took place off the Capes of Virginia, be-
tween the French and English squadrons, which terminated so
far to the advantage of the English, that Arnold was saved from

212 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

imminent danger of falling into the hands of his exasperated
countrymen.

84. After the unfortunate battle at Camden, August
16th, 1780, congress thought proper to remove Gen.
Gates, and to appoint Gen. Greene in his place. In
December, 1780, Greene assumed the command. The
army, at this time, was reduced to two thousand men,
more than half of whom were militia, and all were mis-
erably fed and clothed.

With this force, Gen. Greene took the field, against a
superior regular force, flushed with successive victories
through a whole campaign. Soon after taking the com-
mand, he divided his force, and, with one part, sent
Gen. Morgan to the western extremity of South Caro-
lina.

At this time, Lord Cornwallis was nearly prepared to
invade North Carolina. Unwilling to leave such an
enemy as Morgan in the rear, he despatched Col. Tarle-
ton to engage Gen. Morgan, and " to push him to the ut-
most."

85. January 17th, 1781, these two detachments met,
when was fought the spirited battle of the Cowpens, in
which the American arms signally triumphed.

In this memorable battle, the British lost upwards of one hun-
dred killed, among whom were ten commissioned officers, and
two hundred wounded. More than five hundred prisoners fell
into the hands of the Americans, besides two pieces of artillery,
twelve standards, eight hundred muskets, thirty-five baggage
wagons, and one hundred dragoon horses : the loss of the Ameri-
cans was no more than twelve killed, and sixty wounded.

The victory of the Cowpens must be reckoned as one of the
most brilliant achieved during the revolutionary war. The force
of Morgan hardly amounted to five hundred, while that of his
adversary exceeded one thousand. Morgan's brigade were prin-
cipally militia, while Tarleton commanded the flower of the
British army.

86. Upon receiving the intelligence of Tarleton's de-
feat, Cornwallis abandoned the invasion of North Caro-
lina for the present, and marched in pursuit of Gen.
Morgan ,

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 213

Greene, suspecting his intentions, hastened with his
army to join Morgan. This junction was at length
effected, at Guilford Court-House, after a fatiguing
march, in which Cornwallis nearly overtook him, and
was prevented only by the obstruction of a river.

After his junction with Morgan, Gen. Greene, with
his troops and baggage, crossed the river Dan, and en-
tered Virginia, again narrowly escaping the British, who
nere in close pursuit.

87. Satisfied with having driven Greene from North
Carolina, Cornwallis retired to Hillsborough, where,
erecting the royal standard, he issued his proclamation,
inviting the loyalists to join him. Many accepted his
invitation. At the same time, he despatched Tarleton,
with four hundred and fifty men, to secure the counte-
nance of a body of loyalists, collected between the Hawe
and Deep rivers.

88. Apprehensive of Tarleton's success, Gen. Greene,
on the 18th of February, recrossed the Dan into Caroli-
na, and despatched Generals Pickens and Lee to watch
the movements of the enemy. These officers were unable
to brincr Tarleton to an engagement. Gen. Greene, hav-
ing now received a reinforcement, making his army four
thousand five hundred strong, concentrated his forces,
and directed his march towards Guilford Court-House,
whither Lord Cornwallis had retired.

Here, on the 8th of March, a general engagement
took place, in which victory, after alternately passing to
the banners of each army, finally decided in favor of the
British.

The British loss, in this battle, exceeded five hundred in killed
and wounded, among whom were several of the most distinguish-
ed officers. The American loss was about four hundred, in kill-
ed and wounded, of which more than three fourths fell upon the
continentals. Though the numerical force of Gen. Greene
nearly doubled that of Cornwallis, yet, when we consider the dif-
ference between these forces, the shameful conduct of the North
Carolina militia, who fled at the first fire, the desertion of the
second Maryland regiment, and that a body of reserve was not

214 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

brought into action, it will appear, that our numbers actually en
gaged but little exceeded that of the enemy.

89. Notwithstanding the issue of the above battle.
Gen. Greene took the bold resolution of leading back his
forces to South Carolina, and of attacking the enemy's
stiong post at Camden, in that state. Accordingly, on
the 9th of April, he put his troops in motion, and, on the
20th, encamped at Logtown, within sight of the enemy's
works. Lord Rawdon, at this time, held the command
•at Camden, and had a force of only nine hundred men.
The army of Gen. Greene — a detachment having been
made for another expedition under Gen. Lee — amounted
scarcely to twelve hundred men of all classes.

On the 25th, Lord Rawdon drew out his forces, and
the two armies engaged. For a season, victory seemed
inclined to the Americans; but, in the issue, Gen. Greene
found himself obliged to retreat.

The American loss, in killed, wounded, and missing, was two
hundred and sixty-eight; the English loss was nearly equal.
The failure of the victory, in this battle, was not attributable, as
in some cases, to the .flight of the militia, when danger had
scarcely begun ; but Gen. Greene experienced the mortification
of seeing a regiment of veterans give way to an inferior force,
when every circumstance was in their favor — the very regiment,
too, which, at the battle of the Co wpens, behaved with such he-
roic bravery.

90. Although the British arms gained the victory of
Camden, the result of the whole was favorable to the
American cause. Gen. Lee, with a detachment de-
spatched for that purpose, while Greene was marching
against Camden, took possession of an important post at
Mottes, near the confluence of the Congaree and Santee
rivers. This auspicious event was followed by the evacu-
ation of Camden by Lord Rawdon, and of the whole
line of British posts, with the exception of Ninety-Six
and Charleston.

91. Ninety-Six, one hundred and forty-seven miles
north-west from Charleston, was garrisoned by five hun-
dred and sixty men, Against this post, after the battle

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 215

of Camden, Gen. Greene took up his march, and, on the
22d of May, sat down before it. Soon after the siege of
it had been commenced, intelligence arrived that Lord
Rawdon had been reinforced by troops from Ireland,
and was on his march, with two thousand men, for its
relief. Greene now determined upon an assault; but in
this he failed, with a loss of one hundred and fifty men,
Soon after his arrival at Ninety-Six, Lord Rawdon
deemed it expedient to evacuate this post. Retiring
himself to Charleston, his army encamped at the Eutaw
Springs, forty miles from Charleston.

92. Gen. Greene, having retired to the high hills of
Santee, to spend the hot and sickly season, in Septem-
ber approached the enemy at the Eutaw Springs. On
the morning of the 8th, he advanced upon him, and the
battle between the two armies became general. The
contest was sustained with equal bravery on both sides ;
victory seemed to decide in favor of neither.

The British lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, about one
thousand one hundred. The loss of the Americans was five
hundred and fifty-five.

93. The battle of the Eutaw Springs was the last
general action that took place in South Carolina, and
nearly finished the war in that quarter. The enemy now
retired to Charleston.

Thus closed the campaign of 1781, in South Carolina. Few
commanders have ever had greater difficulties to encounter than
Gen. Greene ; and few have ever, with the same means, accom-
plished so much. Though never so decisively victorious, yet the
battles which he fought, either from necessity or choice, were
always so well managed as to result to his advantage.

Not unmindful of his eminent services, congress presented him
with a British standard, and a gold medal, emblematical of the
action at the Eutaw Springs, which restored a sister state to the
American Union.

94. After the battle of Guilford, between Greene and
Cornwallis, noticed above, the latter, leaving South
Carolina in charge of Lord Rawdon, commenced his
march towards Petersburg, in Virginia, where he arrived

216 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

on the 20th of May. Having received several reinforce-
ments, he found himself with an army of eight thousand,
and indulged the pleasing anticipations that Virginia
would soon be made to yield to his arms.

Early in the spring, Gen. Washington had detached the Mar-
quis de Lafayette, with three thousand men, to co-operate with
the French fleet, in Virginia, in the capture of Arnold, who was
committing depredations in that state. On the failure of this
expedition, Lafayette marched back as far as the head of Elk
river. Here he received orders to return to Virginia, to oppose
the British. ■ On his return, hearing of the advance of Cornwallis
towards Petersburg, twenty miles below Richmond, he hastened
his march, to prevent, if possible, the junction of Cornwallis with
a reinforcement under Gen. Phillips. In this, however, he
failed.

The junction being effected at Petersburg, Cornwallis moved
towards James river, which he crossed, with the intention of
forcing the marquis to a battle.

Prudence forbade the marquis risking an engagement with an
enemy of more than twice his force. He therefore retreated,
and, notwithstanding the uncommon efforts of his lordship to
prevent it, he effected a junction with Gen. Wayne, who had
been despatched by Washington, with eight hundred Pennsyl-
vania militia, to his assistance. After this reinforcement, the
disproportion between himself and his adversary was still too
great to permit him to think of battle. He continued his retreat,
therefore, displaying, in all his manoeuvres, the highest pru-
dence.

95. While these things were transpiring in Virginia,
matters of high moment seemed to be in agitation in the
north, which, not long after, were fully developed.

Early in May, 1781, a plan of the whole campaign
had been arranged by Gen. Washington, in consultation,
at Wethersfield, Connecticut, with Generals Knox and
Du Portail, on the part of the Americans, and Count de
liochambeau, on the part of France. The grand pro-
ject of the season was to lay siege to New York, in con-
cert with a French fleet, expected on the coast in
August.

In the prosecution of this plan, the French troops were march-
ed from Rhode Island, and joined Gen. Washington, who had
concentrated his forces at Kingsbridge, fifteen miles above New
York. All things were preparing for a vigorous siege, and to-

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION 217

wards this strongest hold of the enemy, the eyes or all were in-
tently directed.

In this posture of things, letters addressed to Gen. Washington
informed him that the expected French fleet, under the Count
de Grasse, would soon arrive in the Chesapeake, and that this,
instead of New York, was the place of its destination.

96. The intelligence that the co-operation of the above
fleet was not to be expected, with other circumstances,
induced Washington to change the plan of operations,
and to direct his attention to Cornwallis, who, from
pursuing Lafayette, had retired to Yorktown, near the
mouth of York river, and had fortified that place. With
this object in view, on the 19th of July, he drew off his
forces from New York, and, having hastened the re-
moval of his troops from various points, on the 30th of
Sept., the combined armies, amounting to twelve thou-
sand, moved upon Yorktown and Gloucester, while the
Count de Grasse, with his fleet, proceeded up to the
mouth of York river, to prevent Cornwallis either from
retreating, or receiving assistance.

Yorktown is a small village on the south side of York river,
whose southern hanks are high, and in whose waters a ship
of the line may ride in safety. Gloucester Point is a piece of
land on the opposite shore, projecting far into the river. Both
these posts were occupied by Cornwallis — the main body of the
army being at York, under the immediate command of his lord-
ship, and a detachment of six hundred at Gloucester Point, under
Lieut. Col. Tarleton.

No movement, during the war, was more felicitously accom-
plished, than the above of Washington, in withdrawing his troops
from New York, while the British general was kept in utter ig-
norance of his object. The latter, supposing it a feint, to draw
him to a general engagement, remained at his ease ; nor were his
suspicions awakened, until Washington and his troops were some
distance on their way towards Virginia.

97. On the 6th of October, Washington's heavy ord-
nance, foe, arrived, and the siege was commenced in
form. Seldom, if ever, during the revolutionary struggle,
did the American commander-in-chief, or his troops,
appear before the enemy with more cool determination,
or pursue him with more persevering ardor, than at th<»

218 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

siege of Yorktown. With the fall of Cornwallis, it was
perceived that the hopes of Great Britain, successfully
to maintain the contest, must nearly expire : with this in
prospect, there was no wavering of purpose, and no in-
termission of toil.

On the 19th of October, the memorable victory over
Cornwallis was achieved, and his whole army was sur-
rendered, amounting to more than seven thousand pris-
oners of war, together with a park of artillery of one hun-
dred and sixty pieces, the greater part of which were brass.

Articles of capitulation being mutually signed and ratified,
Gen. Lincoln was appointed, by the commander-in-chief, to re-
ceive the submission of the royal army, in the same manner in
which, eighteen months before, Cornwallis had received that of
the Americans at Charleston.

The spectacle is represented as having been impressive and
affecting. The road through which the captive army marched
was lined with spectators, French and American. On one side,
the commander-in-chief, surrounded with his suite, and the
American staff, took his station; on the other side, opposite to
him, was the Count de Rochambeau, in the like manner attended.

The captive army approached, moving slowly in column, with
grace and precision. Universal silence was observed amidst the
vast concourse, and the utmost decency prevailed ; exhibiting an
awful sense of the vicissitudes of human life, mingled with com-
miseration for the unhappy.

Every eye was now turned, searching for the British com-
mander-in-chief, anxious to look at the man heretofore so much
the object of their dread. All were disappointed. Cornwallis,
unable to bear up against the humiliation of marching at the
head of his garrison, constituted Gen. O'Hara his representative,
on the occasion.

The post of Gloucester, falling with that of York, was deliver-
ed up the same day, by Lieut. Col. Tarleton.

At the termination of the siege, the besieging army amounted
to sixteen thousand. The British force was put down at seven
thousand one hundred and seven, of which only four thousand
and seven rank and file are stated to have been fit for duty.

9S. Five days after the surrender of Cornwallis, Sir
Henry Clinton made his appearance off the capes of
Virginia, with a reinforcement of seven thousand men ;
but, receiving intelligence of his lordship's fate, he re-
turned to New York.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION 219

Cornwallis, in his despatches to Sir Henry, more than hinted,
that his fall had been produced by a too firm reliance on prom-
ises, that no pains were taken to fulfil. Clinton had promised
Cornwallis that this auxiliary force should leave New York on
the 5th of October ; but, for reasons never explained, it did not
sail until the 19th, the very day that decided the fate of the
army.

99. Nothing could exceed the joy of the American
people at this great and important victory over Lord
Cornwallis. Exultation broke fortH from one extremity
of the country to the other. The remembrance of the
past gave place in ail minds to the most brilliant hopes.
It was confidently anticipated, that the affair of York-
town would rapidly hasten the acknowledgment of
American independence — an event for which the peo-
ple had been toiling and bleeding through so many cam-
paigns.

In all parts of the United States, solemn festivals and rejoicings
celebrated the triumph of American fortune. The names of
Washington, Rochambeau, De Grasse, and Lafayette, resounded
everywhere. To the unanimous acclaim of the people, congress
joined the authority of its resolves. It addressed thanks to the
generals, officers, and soldiers — presented British colors — ordered
the erection of a marble column — and went into procession to
church, to render public thanksgiving to God for the recent vic-
tory. The 30th of December was appointed as a day of national
thanksgiving.

100. While the combined armies were advancing to
the siege of Yorktown, an excursion was made from
New York, by Gen. Arnold, against New London, in his
native state. The object of this expedition seems to
have been, to draw away a part of the American forces;
Sir Henry Clinton knowing but too well, that, if they
were left at liberty to push the siege of Yorktown, the
blockaded army must inevitably surrender.

This expedition was signalized by the greatest atroci-
ties. Fort Trumbull, on the west, and Fort Griswold,
on the east side of the river Thames, below New Lon-
don, were taken, and the greater part of that town was
burnt.

220 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

At Fort Trumbull, little or no resistance was made ; but Fort
Griswold was defended for a time, with great bravery and reso-
lution. After the fort was carried, a British officer, entering, in
quired who commanded. Col. Ledyard answered, "1 did, but
you do now " — at the same time presenting his sword. The
officer immediately plunged the sword into his bosom. A gen-
eral massacre now took place, as well of those who surrendered
as of those who resisted, which continued until nearly all the
garrison were either killed or wounded. Sixty dwelling houses,
and eighty-four stores, in New London, were reduced to ashes.

101. The fall of Cornwallis may be considered as
substantially closing the war. A few posts of importance
were still held by the British — New York, Charleston,
and Savannah — but all other parts of the country, which
they had possessed, Were recovered into the power of
congress. A few skirmishes alone indicated the contin
uance of war.

A part of the French army, soon after the capture of Cornwal-
lis, re-embarked, and Count de Grasse sailed for the West Indies.
Count Rochambeau cantoned his army for the winter, 1782, in
Virginia, and the main body of the Americans returned, by the
way of the Chesapeake, to their former position on the Hud-
son.

102. From the 12th of December, 1781, to the 4th
of March, 1782, motion after motion was made in the
British parliament, for putting an end to the war in
America. On this latter day, the commons resolved,
" that the house would consider as enemies to his majes-
ty, and to the country, all those who should advise, or
attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, on the
continent of North America."

103. On the same day, the command of his majesty's
forces in America was taken from Sir Henry Clinton,
and given to Sir Guy Carleton, who was instructed to
promote the wishes of Great Britain, for an accommoda-
tion with the United States.

In accordance with these instructions, Sir Guy Carle-
ton endeavored to open a correspondence with congress,
and with this view sent to Gen. Washington to solicit a
passport for his secretary. But this was refused, since

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION 22 i

congress would enter into no negotiations but in concert
with his most Christian Majesty.

104. The French court, on receiving intelligence of
the surrender of Cornwallis, pressed upon congress the
appointment of commissioners for negotiating peace with
Great Britain. Accordingly, John Adams, Benjamin
Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens, were appoint-
ed. These commissioners met Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr.
Oswald, on the part of Great Britain, at Paris, and pro-
visional articles of peace between the two countries were
signed, November 30th, 1782. The definitive treaty was
signed on the 30th of September, 1783.

Although the definitive treaty was not signed until
September, there had been no act of hostility between
the two armies, and a state of peace had actually existed
from the commencement of the year 1783. A formal
proclamation of the cessation of hostilities was made
through the army on the 19th of April ; Savannah was
evacuated in July, New York in November, and Charles-
ton in the following month.

105. The third of November was fixed upon, by con-
gress, for disbanding the army of the United States. On
the day previous, Washington issued his farewell orders,
and bid an affectionate adieu to the soldiers, who had
fought and bled by his side.

After mentioning the trying times through which he had pass
ed, and the unexampled patience which, under every circum-
stance of suffering, his army had evinced, he passed to the glori-
ous prospects opening before them and their country, and then
bade them adieu in the following words : " Being now to con-
clude these his last public orders, to take his ultimate leave, in a
ehort time, of the military character, and to bid a final adieu to
the armies he has so long had the honor to command, he can on-
ly again offer in their behalf, his recommendations to their grate-
ful country, and his prayer to the God of armies.

" May ample justice be done them here, and may the choicest
favor, both here and hereafter, attend those, who, under the di-
vine auspices, have secured innumerable blessings for others !
With these wishes, and this benediction, the commander-in-chief
is about to retire from service. The curtain of separation will
eoon be drawn, and the military scene to him will be closed forever.'
19*

222 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

106. Soon after taking leave of the army, Gen. Wasn<
ington was called to the still more painful hour of sepa-
ration from his officers, greatly endeared to him by a
long series of common sufferings and dangers.

The officers having previously assembled in New York forth©
purpose, Gen. Washington now joined them, and, calling for a
glass of wine, thus addressed them : — " With a heart full of love
and gratitude, I now take my leave of you. I most devoutly
wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as
your former ones have been glorious and honorable."

Having thus affectionately addressed them, he now took each
by the hand and bade him farewell. Followed by them to the
side of the Hudson, he entered a barge, and, while tears rolled
down his cheeks, he turned towards the companions of his glory,
and bade them a silent adieu.

107. December 23, Washington appeared in the hall
of congress, and resigned to them the commission which
they had given him, as commander-in-chief of the armies
of the United States.

After having spoken of the accomplishment of his wishes and
exertions, in the independence of his country, and commended his
officers and soldiers to congress, he concluded as follows : —

" I consider it an indispensable duty to close the last solemn
act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dear-
est country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who
have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping.

" Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the
great theatre of action ; and, bidding an affectionate farewell to
this august body, under whose orders I have long acted, I here
offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employment
of public life."

108. Upon accepting his commission, congress,
through their, president, expressed, in glowing language,
to Washington, their high sense of his wisdom and en-
ergy in conducting the war to so happy a termination,
and invoked the choicest blessings upon his future life.

President Mifflin concluded as follows : — =" We join you in com
mending the interest of our dearest country to the protection of
Almighty God, beseeching Him to dispose the hearts and minds
of its citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of be-
coming a happy and respectable nation. And for you, we ad
dress to Him our earnest prayers, that a life so beloved mav •>«

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 223

fostered with all His care ; that your days may be as hsppy a?
they have been illustrious ; and that He will finally give you
that reward which this world cannot give."

A profound silence now pervaded the assembly. The
grandeur of the scene, the recollection of the past, the
felicity of the present, and the hopes of the future,
crowded fast upon all, while they united in invoking
blessings upon the man, who, under God, had achieved
so much, and who now, in the character of a mere citi-
zen, was hastening to a long-desired repose at his seat,
at Mount Vernon, in Virginia.

* NOTES.

109. Manners. At the commencement of the revo-
lution, the colonists of America were a mass of husband-
men, merchants, mechanics, and fishermen, who were
occupied in the ordinary avocations of their respective
callings, and were entitled to the appellation of a sober,
honest, and industrious set of people. Being, however,
under the control of a country whose jealousies were
early and strongly enlisted against them, and which,
therefore, was eager to repress every attempt, on their
part, to rise, they had comparatively little scope or en
couragement for exertion and enterprise.

But, when the struggle for independence began, the
case was altered. New fields for exertion were opened,
and new and still stronger impulses actuated their
bosoms. A great change was suddenly wrought in the
American people, and a vast expansion of character
ook place Those who were before only known in the
hum Die sphere of peaceful occupation, soon shone forth
in the cabinet or in the field, fully qualified to cope with
the trained generals and statesmen of Europe.

But, although the revolution caused such an expansion
of character in the American people, and called forth the
most striking patriotism among all classes, it introduced,
at the same time, greater looseness of manners and

224 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

morals. An army always carries deep vices in its train,
and communicates its corruption to society around it.
Besides this, the failure of public credit so far put it out
of the power of individuals to perform private engage-
ments, that the breach of them became common, and,
at length, was scarcely disgraceful. That high sense of
integrity, which had extensively existed before, was thus
exchanged for more loose and slippery notions of hon-
esty and honor.

"On the whole," says Dr. Ramsay, who wrote soon after the
close of this period, " the literary, political and military talents of
the United States have been improved b)' the revolution, but
their moral character is inferior to what it formerly was. So
great is the ehange for the worse," continues he, " that the
friends of public order are loudly called upon to exert their ut-
most abilities, in extirpating the vicious principles and habits
which have taken deep root during the late convulsions."

110. Religion. During the revolution, the colonies
being all united in one cause — a congress being assem-
bled from all parts of America — and more frequent inter-
course between different parts of the country being pro-
moted by the shifting of the armies — local prejudices and
sectarian asperities were obliterated ; religious contro-
versy was suspended ; and bigotry softened. That
spirit of intolerance, which had marked some portions
of the country, was nearly done away.

But, for these advantages, the revolution brought with
it great disadvantages to religion in general. The atheis-
tical philosophy, which had been spread over France, and
which would involve the whole subject of religion in the
gloomy mists of scepticism — which acknowledges no dis-
tinction between right and wrong, and considers a fu-
ture existence as a dream, that may or may not be real-
ized— was thickly sown in the American army, by the
French ; and, uniting with the infidelity which be-
fore had taken root in the country, produced a serious
declension in the tone of religious feelings among the
A merican people.

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 225

In addition to tliis, religious institutions, during the war. were
much neglected ; churches were demolished, or converted into
barracks ; public worship was often suspended ; and the clergy
suffered severely from the reduction of their salaries, caused by
the depreciation of the circulating medium.

111. Trade and Commerce. During the war of the
revolution, the commerce of the United States was in-
terrupted, not only with Great Britain, but, in a great
measure, with the rest of the world. The greater part
of the shipping, belonging to the country, was destroyed
by the enemy, or perished by a natural process of decay.

Our coasts were so lined with British cruisers as to render
navigation too hazardous to be pursued to any considerable ex-
tent. Some privateers, however, were fitted out, which succeed-
ed in capturing several valuable prizes, on board of which were
arms, and other munitions of war. During the iast three years
of the war, an illicit trade to Spanish America was carried on ;
but it was extremely limited.

112. Agriculture. Agriculture was greatly interrupt-
ed, during this period, by the withdrawing of laborers to
the camp, by the want of encouragement furnished by
exportation, and by the distractions which disturbed all
the occupations of society.

The army often suffered for the means of subsistence, and the
officers were sometimes forced to compel the inhabitants to fur-
nish the soldiers food, in sufficient quantities to prevent their
suffering.

113. Arts and Manufactures. The trade with
England, during this period, being interrupted by the
war, the people of the United States were compelled to
manufacture for themselves. Encouragement was given
to all necessary manufactures, and the zeal, ingenuity
and industry of the people, furnished the country with
articles of prime necessity, and, in a measure, supplied
the place of a foreign market. Such was the prog-
ress in arts and manufactures, during the period, that,
after the return of peace, when an uninterrupted inter-
course with England was again opened, some articles,
which before were imported altogether, were found so

226 period v.— 1775 to 1783.

well and so abundantly manufactured at home, that their
importation was stopped.

114. Population. The increase of the people of
the United States, during this period, was small. Few,
if any, emigrants arrived in the country. Many of the
inhabitants were slain in battle, and thousands of that
class called tories, left the land, who never returned.
Perhaps we may fairly estimate the inhabitants of the
country, about the close of this period, 1784, at three
millions two hundred and fifty thousand.

115. Education. The interests of education suf-
fered, in common with other kindred interests, during
the war. In several colleges, the course of instruc-
tion was, for a season, suspended ; the hall was ex«
changed by the students for the camp, and the gown for
the sword and epaulet. '

Towards the conclusion of the war, two colleges were founded;
one in Maryland, in 1782, by the name of Washington college )
the other, in 1783, in Pennsylvania, which received the name of
Dickinson college. The writer whom we have quoted above,
estimates the whole number of colleges and academies in the
United States, at the close of this period, at thirty-six.

REFLECTIONS.

116. The American revolution is doubtless the most interest-
ing event in the pages of modern history. Changes equally
great, and convulsions equally violent, have often . taken place ;
and the history of man tells us of many instances in which op-
pression, urged beyond endurance, has called forth the spirit of
successful and triumphant resistance. But, in the event before
us, we see feeble colonies, without an army, without a navy,
without an established government, without a revenue, without
munitions of war, without fortifications, boldly stepping forth to
meet the veteran armies of a proud, powerful, and vindictive
enemy. We see these colonies, amidst want, poverty, and mis-
fortune, supported by the pervading spirit of liberty, and guided
by the good hand of Heaven, for nearly eight years sustaining
the weight of a cruel conflict, upon their own soil. We see
them at length victorious ; their enemies sullenly retire from
Uieir shores, and these humble colonies stand forth enrolled on

tie page of history, a free, sovereign, and independent nation

WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 227

Nor is this all. We see a wise government springing up from
the blood that was spilt, and, down to our own time, shedding
the choicest political blessings upon several millions of people.

What nation can dwell with more just satisfaction upon its
annals than ours ? Almost all others trace their foundation to
some ambitious and bloody conqueror, who sought only by enslav-
ing others to aggrandize himself. Our independence was icon
by the people, who fought for the natural rights of man. Other
nations have left their annals stained witn the crimes of their peo-
ple and princes ; ours shines with the glowing traces of patriotism,
constancy, and courage, amidst every rank of life and every
grade of office.

Whenever we advert to this portion of our history, and review
it, as we well may, with patriotic interest, let us not forget the

fratitude we owe, as well to those who " fought, and bled, and
ied " for us, as to that benignant Providence, who stayed the
proud waves of British tyranny.

Let us also gather political wisdom from the American revo-
lution. It has taught the world, emphatically, that oppression
tends to weaken and destroy the power of the oppressor ; that a
people united in the cause of liberty are invincible by those who
would enslave them ; and that Heaven will ever frown upon the
cause of injustice, and ultimately grant success to those who
oppose it

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD VI.

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE FORMATION AND ESTAB-
LISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION.

Extending from the Disbanding of the Army, 1783, to
the Inauguration of George Washington, as Presi-
dent of the United States, under the Federal Con-
stitution, 17S9.

Sec. 1. During the war of the revolution, the Ameri-
can people had been looking forward to a state of peace,
independence and self-government, as almost necessarily
ensuring every possible blessing. A short time after its
termination, however, it was apparent that something
not yet possessed was necessary, to realize the private
and public prosperity that had been anticipated. After
a short struggle so to administer the existing system of
government, as to make it competent to the great objects
for which it was instituted, it became, obvious that some
other system must be substituted, or a general wreck of
all that had been gained would ensue.

At the close of the war, the debts of the Union were comput-
ed to amount to more than forty millions of dollars. These debts
were of two kinds, foreign and domestic. The foreign debt
amounted to near eight millions, and was due to individuals in
France, to the crown of France, to lenders in Holland and Spain.
The domestic debt was due to the officers and soldiers of the
revolutionary army and others. By the articles of confederation
tnd union between the states, congress had power to declare war.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 229

and borrow money, or issue bills of credit, to carry it on ; but it had
not the ability to discharge the debts incurred by the war. Con-
gress could recommend to the individual states to raise money
for that purpose ; but at this point its power terminated.

Soon after the war, the attention of that body was drawn to
this subject ; the payment of the national debt being a matter of
justice to creditors, as well as of vital importance to the preserva-
tion of the union. It was proposed, therefore, to the states, that
they should grant to congress the power of laying a duty of five
per cent, on all foreign goods, which should be imported, and
that the revenue arising thence should be applied to the diminu-
tion of the public debt, until it should be extinguished.

To this proposal, most of the states assented, and passed an
act granting the power. But Rhode Island, apprehensive that
such a grant would lessen the advantages of her trade, declined
passing an act for that purpose. Subsequently, New York joined
in the opposition, and rendered all prospect of raising a revenue,
in this way, hopeless.

The consequence was, that even the interest of the public
debt remained unpaid. Certificates of public debt lost their
credit, and many of the officers and soldiers of the late army.
who were poor, were compelled to sell these certificates at ex-
cessive reductions.

While the friends of the national government were making
unavailing efforts to fix upon a permanent revenue, which might
enable it to preserve the national faith, other causes, besides the.
loss of confidence in the confederation, concurred to hasten a
radical change in the political system of the United States.

Among these causes, the principal was the evil resulting from
the restrictions of Great Britain, laid on the trade of the Uniteu
States with the West Indies ; the ports of those islands being
shut against the vessels of the United States, and enormous du-
ties imposed on our most valuable exports.

Had congress possessed the power, a remedy might have been
found, in passing similar acts against Great Britain ; but this
power had not been delegated by the states to the congress.
That thirteen independent sovereignties, always jealous of one
another, would separately concur in any proper measures to com-
pel Great Britain to relax, was not to be expected. The impor-
tance of an enlargement of the powers of congress was thus ren-
dered still more obvious.

2. During the enfeebled and disorganized state of the
general government, which followed the war, attempts
were made, in some of the states, to maintain their
eredit, and to satisfy their creditors. The attempt of
Massachusetts to effect this, by means of a heavy tax.
20

230 period vi.— 1783 to 1789.

produced an open insurrection among the people. In
some parts of the state, the people convened in tumultu-
ous assemblies, obstructed the sitting of courts, and,
finally, took arms in opposition to the laws of the state.
The prudent measures of Gov. Bowdoin and his coun-
cil, seconded by an armed force, under Gen. Lincoln, in
the winter of 1786, gradually subdued the spirit of oppo-
sition, and restored the authority of the laws.

This rising of the people of Massachusetts is usually styled
Shays' insurrection, from one Daniel Shays, a captain in the rev-
olutionary army, who headed the insurgents. In August, 1786,
fifteen hundred insurgents assembled at Northampton, took pos-
session of the court-house, and prevented the session of the
court. Similar outrages occurred at Worcester, Concord, Taun-
ton, and Springfield. In New Hampshire, also, a body of men
arose in September, and surrounding the general assembly, sit-
ting at Exeter, held them prisoners for several hours.

In this state of civil commotion, a body of troops, to the num
ber of four thousand, was ordered out, by Massachusetts, to sup-
port the judicial courts, and suppress the insurrection. This
force was put under the command of Gen. Lincoln. Anothei
body of troops was collected by Gen. Shepherd, near Spring
field. After some skirmishing, the insurgents were dispersed ,
"several were taken prisoners and condemned, but were ultimate
ly pardoned.

3. The period seemed to have arrived, when it was to
be decided whether the general government was to be
supported or abandoned — whether the glorious objects
of the revolutionary struggle should be realized or lost.

In January, 1786, the legislature of Virginia adopted
a resolution to appoint commissioners, who were to meet
such others as might be appointed by the other states,
to take into consideration the subject of trade, and to
provide for a uniform system of commercial relations,
&c. This resolution ultimately led to a proposition for
a general convention to consider the state of the Union.

But five states were represented in the convention pro-
posed by Virginia, which met at Annapolis. In con-
sideration of the small number of states represented,
the convention, without coming to any specific resolu-
tion on the particular subjects referred to them, ad-

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 23J

journed to meet in Philadelphia, the succeeding May.
Previously to adjournment, it recommended to the seve-
ral states, to appoint delegates for that meeting, and to
give them power to revise the federal system.

4. Agreeably to the above recommendation, the sev-
eral states of the Union, excepting Rhode Island, ap-
pointed commissioners, who convened at Philadelphia,
and proceeded to the important business of their • ap-
pointment.

Of this body, consisting of fifty-five members, George
Washington, one of the delegates from Virginia, was
unanimously elected president. The convention pro-
ceeded with closed doors to discuss the interesting sub-
jects submitted to their consideration.

5. The first and most important question which pre-
sented itself to this convention, was, whether the then
present system should be amended, or anew one formed.
By the resolve of congress, as well as the instructions
of some of the states, they were met " for the sole and
express purpose of revising the articles of confederation."
The defects of the old government were so radical and
apparent, that it was determined by a majority to form
an entire new one.

6. On the great principles, which should form the
basis of the constitution, not much difference of opinion
prevailed. But, in reducing those principles to practical
details, less harmony was to be expected. Such, indeed,
was the difference of opinion, that, more than once,
there was reason to fear, that the convention would rise
without effecting the object for which it was formed.

The convention having decided that the legislative branch of
the government should consist of a house of representatives and a
senate, after a long debate it \va3 agreed, that the right of each
state to vote in the house should be in proportion to the whole
number cf its white, or other free citizens, and three fifths of all
other persons.

In the senate, the small states demanded an equal vote with
the large states. This the latter refused ; and on this point the
convention came well nigh dissolving.

232 period vi.— 1783 to 1789.

At this interesting and solemn crisis, Dr. Franklin rose, and,
addressing himself to the president, among other things, said,
" Sir, how has it happened, that while groping so long in the
dark — divided in our opinions, and now ready to separate, with-
out accomplishing the great objects of our meeting — that we have
not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the Father of
Lights to illuminate our understandings ? In the beginning of the
contest with Britain, when we were sensible of danger, we had
daily prayer in this room for divine protection. Our prayers, sir,
were heard ; and they were graciously answered. All of us who
were engaged in the struggle, must have observed frequent in-
stances of a superintending Providence in our favor. To that
kind Providence we owe this happy opportunity of consulting, in
peace, on the means of establishing our future national felicity.
And have we now forgotten that powerful friend ? or do we im-
agine that we no longer need its assistance ? I have lived, sir, a
long time ; and the longer 1 live, the more convincing proof I
see of thjs truth, that God governs the affairs of men. And if a
sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it proba-
ble that an empire can rise without his aid ? We have been as-
sured, sir, in the sacred writings, that except the ' Lord build the
house, they labor in vain that build it.' I firmly believe this;
and I also believe that, without his concurring aid, we shall suc-
ceed in this political building no better than the builders of Ba- .
bel ; we shall be divided by our little partial local interests ; our
projects will be confounded, and we ourselves shall become a
reproach and a by- word to future ages. And what is worse,
mankind may hereafter, from this important instance, despair or
establishing government by human wisdom, and leave it to
chance, war or conquest.

" I therefore beg leave to move, that henceforth prayers, im-
ploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our delib-
erations, be held in this assembly every morning before we pro-
ceed to business ; and that one or more of the clergy of this city
be requested to officiate in that service."

This suggestion, it need scarcely be said, was favorably re
ceived by the convention, and from that time the guidance of
divine wisdom was daily sought. As might be expected, great-
er harmony prevailed — the spirit of concession pervaded the con-
vention— amotion was made for the appointment of a committee,
to take into consideration both branches of the legislature. This
motion prevailing, a committee was accordingly chosen by ballot,
consisting of one from each state ; and the convention adjourned
for three days.

On the meeting of the convention, after this adjournment, the
above committee reported to the satisfaction of all, and the body
proceeded to organize the legislative, and other departments of
the government.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 233

7. At length, on the 17th of September, 1787, the
convention, having adopted and signed the federal con-
stitution, presented it to congress, which body soon after
sent it to the several states for their consideration.

An abstract of this constitution, with its several subsequent
amendments, follows : it is extracted from Mr. Webster's Ele-
ments of Useful Knowledge.

Of the Legislature. " The legislative power of the United
States is vested in a congress, consisting of two houses or branches,
a senate, and a house of representatives. The members of
the house of representatives are chosen once in two years, by tha
persons who are qualified to vote for members of the most nu-
merous branches of the legislature, in each state. To be entitled
to a seat in this house, a person must have attained to the age of
twenty-five years, been a citizen of the United States for seven
years, and be an inhabitant of the state in which he is chosen."

Of the Senate. " The senate consists of two senators from each
Btate, chosen by the legislature for six years. The senate is di-
vided into three classes, the seats of one of which are vacated
every second year. If a vacancy happens during the recess of
the legislature, the executive of the state makes a temporary ap-
pcintment of a senator, until the next meeting of the legislature.
A senator must have attained to the age of thirty years, been a
citizen of the United States nine years, and be an inhabitant of
the state for which he is chosen."

Of the Powers of the tico Houses. " The house of representatives
choose their own speaker and other officers, and have the exclu-
si re power of impeaching public, officers, and originating bills
for raising a revenue. The vice-president of the United States
is president of the senate ; but the other officers are chosen by
the senate. The senate tries all impeachments ; each house de-
termines the validity of the elections and qualifications of its own
members, forms its own rules, and keeps a journal of its proceed-
ings. The members are privileged from arrest, while attending
on the session, going to, or returning from the same, except for
treason, felony, or breach of the peace."

Of the Powers of Congress. " The congress of the United States
have power to make and enforce all laws, which are necessary
for the general welfare — as t^ lay and collect taxes, imposts, and
excises; borrow money, regulate commerce, establish uniform
rules of naturalization, coin money, establish post-roads and post-
offices, promote the arts and sciences, institute tribunals inferior
to the supreme court, define and punish piracy, declare war, and
make reprisals, raise and support armies, provide a navy, regulate
the militia, and to make all laws necessary to carry these powers
into effect."

20 *

234 period vi.— 1783 to 1789.

Of Restrictions. " No bill of attainder, or retrospective law,
shall be passed ; the writ of habeas corpus cannot be suspended,
except in cases of rebellion or invasion ; no direct tax can be laid,
except according to a census of the inhabitants ; no duty can be
laid on exports; no money can be drawn from the treasury, unless
appropriated by law ; no title of nobility can be granted, nor can
any public officer, without the consent of congress, accept of any
present or title from any foreign prince or state. The states are
restrained from emitting bills of credit, from making any thing
but gold or silver a tender for debts, and from passing any law
impairing private contracts."

Of the Executive. " The executive power of the United States
is vested in a president, who holds his office for four years. To
qualify a man for president, he must have been a citizen at the
adoption of the constitution, or must be a native of the United
States ; he must have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. The
president and vice-president are chosen by electors, designated in
such a manner as the legislature of each state shall direct. The
number of electors in each state is equal to the whole number of
senators and representatives."

Of the Powers of the President. " The president of the United
States is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the
militia when in actual service. He grants reprieves and par-
dons; nominates, and, with the consent of the senate, appoints
ambassadors, judges and other officers; and, with the advice and
consent of the senate, forms treaties, provided two thirds of the
senate agree. He fills vacancies in offices which happen during
the recess of the senate. He convenes the congress on extraor-
dinary occasions, receives foreign ministers, gives information to
congress of the state of public affairs, and, in general, takes care
that the laws be faithfully executed."

Of the Judiciary. " The judiciary of the United States consist&of
one supreme court, and such inferior courts as the congress shall
ordain. The judges are to hold their offices during good be-
havior, and their salaries cannot be diminished during their con-
tinuance in office. The judicial power of these courts extends
to all cases in law and equity, arising under the constitution, or
laws of the United States, and under treaties ; to cases of public
ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction ; to controversies between the states, and in which
the United States are a party ; between citizens of different
slates; between a state and a citizen of another state, and be-
tween citizens of the same state, claiming under grants of differ-
ent states; and to causes between one of the states or an Ameri-
can citizen, and a foreign state or citizen. "

Of Rights and Immunities. a In all criminal trials, except im-
peachment the trial by jury is guarantied to the accused

ESTAHLISIIMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 235

Treason is restricted to the simple acts of levying war against
the United States, and adhering to their enemies, giving them
aid and comfort; and no person can be convicted, but by two
witnesses to the same act, or by confession in open court. A
conviction of treason is not followed by a corruption of blood, to
disinherit the heirs of the criminal, nor by a forfeiture of estate,
except during the life of the offender. The citizens of each
state are entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens
in the several states. Congress may admit new states into the
Union ; and the national compact guaranties to each state a re-
publican form of government, together with protection from for-
eign invasion and domestic violence."

8. By a resolution of the convention, it was recom-
mended that assemblies should be called, in the differ-
ent states, to discuss the merits of the constitution, and
either accept or reject it ; and that, as soon as nine states
should have ratified it, it should be carried into operation
by congress.

To decide the interesting question, respecting the
adoption or rejection of the new constitution, the best
talents of the several states were assembled in their re-
spective conventions. The fate of the constitution could,
for a time, be scarcely conjectured, so equally were the
parties balanced. But, at length, the conventions of
eleven states* assented to, and ratified the constitu-
tion.

9. From the moment it was settled that this new ar
rangement in their political system was to take place,
the attention of all classes of people, as well anti-federal-
ists as federalists, (for by these names the parties for
and against the new constitution were called,) was di-
rected to Gen. Washington, as the first president of the
United States. Accordingly, on the opening of the
votes for president, at New York, March 3d, 1789, by
delegates from eleven states, it was found that he was
unanimously elected to that office, and that John Adams
was elected vice-president.

* North Carolina and 'Rhode Island refused their assent at this time, bill
«ft«anvards acceded to it; the former, November, 1789; the latter, May, 1790

236 period vi.— 1783 to 1789

NOTES.

10. Manners. The war of the revolution, as was
observed in our notes on the last period, seriously affect-
ed the morals and manners of the people of the United
States. The peace of 1783, however, tended, in a
measure, to restore things to their former state. Those
sober habits, for which the country was previously dis-
tinguished, began to return ; business assumed a more
regular and equitable character ; the tumultuous passions
roused by the war subsided ; and men of wisdom and
worth began to acquire their proper influence.

The change wrought in the manners of the people,
during the revolution, began, in this period, to appear.
National peculiarities wore away still more ; local preju-
dices were further corrected, and a greater assimilation
of the yet discordant materials, of which the population
of the United States was composed, took place.

11. Religion. Methodism was introduced into the
United States, during this period, under the direction of
John Wesley, in England. This denomination increased
rapidly in the Middle States, and, in 1789, they amount-
ed to about fifty thousand.

During this period, also, the infidelity, which we have noticed,
seems to have lost ground. Public worship was more punctually
attended than during the war, and the cause of religion began
rgain to flourish.

12. Trade and Commerce. The commerce of the
United States, during the war of the revolution, as al-
ready stated, was nearly destroyed; but, on the return
of peace, it revived. An excessive importation of goods
immediately took place from England. In 1784, the
imports, from England alone, amounted to eighteen mil-
lions of dollars, and in 1785, to twelve millions — making,
in those two years, thirty millions of dollars, while the
exports of the United States to England were only be
tween eight and nine millions.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 237

On the average of six years posterior to the war, the extent of
this period, the imports from Great Britain into the United
States were two millions one hundred and nineteen thousand
eight hundred and thirty-seven pounds sterling ; the exports
nine hundred and eight thousand six hundred and thirty-six
pounds sterling ; leaving an annual balance of five millions
three hundred and twenty-nine thousand two hundred and
eighty-four dollars, in favor of Great Britain.

The commercial intercourse of the United States with other
countries was less extensive than with' England, yet it was not
inconsiderable. From France and her dependencies, the United
States imported, in 1787, to the amount of about two millions five
hundred thousand dollars, and exported to the same to the value
of five millions of dollars.

The trade of the United States with China commenced soor
after the close of the revolutionary war. The first American
vessel that went on a trading voyage to China, sailed from New
York, on the 22d of February, 1784, and returned on the 11th of
May, 1785. In 1789, there were fifteen American vessels at Can-
ton, being a greater number than from any other nation, except
Great Britain.

During this period, also, the Americans commenced the long
and hazardous trading voyages to the North-West Coast of
America. The first of the kind, undertaken from the United
States, was from Boston, in 1788, in a ship commanded by Capt.
Kendrick. The trade afforded great profits at first, and since
1788 has been carried on from the United States to a considera-
ble extent.

The whale fishery, which, during the war, was suspended, re
vived on the return of peace. From 1787 to 1789, both inclusive,
ninety-one vessels were employed from the United States, with
one thousand six hundred and eleven seamen. Nearly eight
thousand barrels of spermaceti oil were annually taken, and about
thirteen thousand barrels of whale oil.

Small quantities of cotton were first exported from the United
States about the year 1784. It was raised in Georgia.

13. Agriculture. Agriculture revived at the close of
the war; and, in a few years, the exports of produce
raised in the United States were again considerable.
Attention began to be paid to the culture of cotton, in
the Southern States, about the year 1783, and it soon be-
came a staple of that part of the country. About the
same time, agricultural societies began to be formed in
the country.

14. Arts and Manufactures. The excessive in>

238 period vi.— 1783 to 1789.

portation of merchandize from Great Britain, during this
period, — much of which was sold at low prices, — checked
the progress of manufactures in the United States, which
had been extensively begun during the war of the revo-
lution. Iron works, however, for the construction of
axes, ironing of carriages, and the making of machinery,
&c. &c, were still kept up in all parts of the United
States. Some coarse woollen and linen cloths, cabinet
furniture, and the more bulky and simple utensils for
domestic use, &,c. &c, were manufactured in New
England.

15. Population. The population of the United States,
at the close of this period, was nearly four millions.

16. Education. Several colleges were established
during this period — one in Maryland, at Annapolis,
called St. John's college; a second, in 1785, at Abing-
ton, in the same state, by the Methodists, called Cokes-
bury college; a third, in the city of New York; and a
fourth, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787 — the former,
by the name of Columbia college, and the latter, by that
of Franklin college. The North Carolina university
was incorporated in 1789.

The subject of education, during this period, seems
to have attracted public attention throughout the United
States, and permanent institutions, for the instruction
of youth, were either planned or established, in every
section of the country.

REFLECTIONS.

17. The history of the world furnishes no parallel to the histo-
ry of the United States, during this short period. At the com-
mencement of it, they had but just emerged from a long and
distressing war, which had nearly exhausted the country, and
imposed an accumulated debt upon the nation. They were
united by a confederation inadequate to the purposes of govern-
ment; they had just disbanded an army, which was unpaid and
dissatisfied ; and, more than all, they were untried in the art of
Belf-orovernment.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 239

In circumstances like these, it would not have been strange
had the people fallen into dissensions and anarchy, or had some
bold, ambitious spirit arisen, and fastened the yoke of monarchy
upon them. But a happier destiny awaited them. In this hour
of* peril, the same Providence, that had guided them thus far, still
watched over them, and, as victory was granted them in the
hour of battle, so wisdom was now vouchsafed in a day of
peace. Those master spirits of the revolution, some of whom
had recently retired from the camp to the enjoyment of civil life,
were now called to devise the means of securing the indepen-
dence which they had won. Perhaps they exhibited to the
world a no less striking spectacle as the framers of our excellent
constitution, than as victors over the arms of Britain.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD VII.

DISTINGUISHED BY WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION

Extending from the Inauguration of President Wash
ington, 1789, to the Inauguration of John Adams, as
President of the United States, 1797.

Sec. 1. On the 30th of April, 1789, Gen. Washington,
in the presence of the first congress under the federal
constitution, and before an immense concourse of spec-
tators, was inducted into the office of president of the
United States, by taking the oath prescribed by the con-
stitution.

The ceremonies of the inauguration being concluded, Wash-
ington entered the senate-chamber, and delivered his first speech.
In this, after expressing the reluctance with which he obeyed the
call of his countrymen, from repose and retirement, so ardently
coveted, after a series of military toils, and the diffidence with
which he entered upon an office so full of responsibility, he pro-
ceeded thus : —

" It will be peculiarly improper to omit, in this first official act,
my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being, who rules over
the universe, who presides in the councils of nations."

Immediately after his inaugural, address, he, with the members
of both houses, attended divine service at St. Paul's chapel.
Thus, in the commencement of his administration, did Wash-
ington, by every suitable means, acknowledge his sense of per-
sonal dependence upon divine wisdom, to guide with discretion
the affairs of a nation committed to his care ; thus did he set an
example worthy of imitation by all who are elevated to place*?
of authority and responsibility.

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 241

2. Business of importance, in relation to the organ-
ization and support of the new government, now pressed
upon the attention of the president and of congress. A
revenue was to be provided ; the departments of govern-
ment wore to be arranged and filled ; a judiciary was to
be established, and its officers appointed ; and provision
was to be made for the support of public credit.

In respect to a revenue for the support of government, and the
discharge of the debt contracted in the revolutionary war, it was
agreed that duties should be laid on merchandise imported into
the country, and on the tonnage of vessels. Laws were passed,
creating a department of state, of the treasury, of war ; and Mr.
Jefferson, Mr. Hamilton, and Gen. Knox were appointed secre-
taries. During this session, also, a national judiciary was con-
stituted and organized, and several amendments to the constitu-
tion were proposed, which were afterwards ratified by the states.

In the debate on establishing the executive departments, an
important inquiry aros'e by whom these important officers could
be removed. After a long discussion, it was decided that the
power should reside in the president alone.

But notwithstanding the question was settled in this manner,
there were strong objections to placing a power in the hands of
an individual which might be greatly abused ; since it was ap-
parent that the president might, from whim, or caprice, or favor-
itism, remove a meritorious officer, to the great injury of the
public good. But to this it was well replied by Mr. Madison : —
" The danger consists in this ; the president can displace from
office a man whose merits require that he should be continued in
it. What will be the motives which the president can feel for
such an abuse of his power, and the restraints to operate to pre-
vent it ? In the first place, he will be impeachable by this house
before the senate for such an act of maladministration ; for I con-
tend, that the wanton removal of meritorious officers would sub-
ject him to impeachment and removal from his own high trust."

3. Before the adjournment of congress, deeply im-
Dressed with a sense of the divine goodness, that body
requested the president to recommend to the people a day
of public thanksgiving and prayer, in which they should
unitedly acknowledge, with grateful hearts, the many and
signal favors of Almighty God, especially in affording
them an opportunity peaceably to establish a constitu-
tion of government for their safety and happiness.

4. On the 29th of September, the first session of

242 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

eongress closed. It was among their concluding acts,
to direct the secretary of the treasury to prepare a plan
for adequately providing for the support of the -public
credit, and to report the same at their next meeting.

5. During the recess of congress, Washington made
a tour into New England. Passing through Connecti-
cut and Massachusetts, and into New Hampshire as far
as Portsmouth, he returned by a different route to New
York.

With this excursion, the president had much reason to be
gratified. To observe the progress of society, the improvements
in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and the temper,
circumstances, and dispositions of the people — while it could
not fail to please an intelligent and benevolent mind, was, in
all respects, worthy of the chief magistrate of the nation. He
was every where received with expressions of the purest affection,
and could not fail to rejoice in the virtue, religion, happiness
and prosperity of the people, at the head of whose government
he wri placed.

6. The second session of the first congress commenced
January 8th, 1790. In obedience to the resolution of
the former congress, the secretary of the treasury, Mr.
Hamilton, made his report on the subject of maintaining
the public credit.

In this report, he strongly recommended to congress,
as the only mode, in his opinion, in which the public
credit would be supported, —

1. That provision be made for the full discharge of
the foreign debt, according to the precise terms of the
contract ;

2. That provision be made for the payment of the
domestic debt, in a similar manner;

3. That the debts of the several states, created for the
purpose of carrying on the war, be assumed by the gen-
eral government.

The public debt of the United States was estimated by the
secretary, at this time, at more than fifty-four millions of dollars
Of this sum, the foreign debt, principally due to France and the
Hollanders, constituted eleven millions and a half of interest ,
and the domestic liquidated debt, including about thirteen

WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. %-I;J

n)illions of arrears of interest, more than forty millions ; and the
unliquidated debt two millions. The secretary recommended the
assumption of the debts of the several states, to be paid equally
with those of the Union, as a measure of sound policy and sub-
stantial justice. These were estimated at twenty -five millions of
dollars.

7. The proposal for making adequate provision for the
foreign debt was met cordially and unanimously ; but,
respecting the full discharge of the domestic debt, and
the assumption of the state debts, much division pre-
vailed in congress. After a spirited and protracted de-
bate on these subjects, the recommendation of the secre*
tary prevailed, and bills conformable thereto passed,
by a small majority.

The division of sentiment among the members of congress, in
relation to the full, or only a partial payment of the domestic
debt, arose from this. A considerable proportion of the original
holders of public securities had found it necessary to sell them
at a reduced price — even as low as two or three shillings on the
pound. These securities had been purchased by speculators, with
the expectation of ultimately receiving the full amount. Under
these circumstances, it was contended by some, that congress
would perform their duty, should they pay to all holders of pub-
lic securities only the reduced market price. Others advocated
a discrimination between the present holders of securities, and
those to whom the debt was orig-inally due, &c. &c.

In his report, Mr. Hamilton ably examined these several points,
and strongly maintained the justice of paying to all holdeis of
securities, without discrimination, the full value of what appeared
on the face of their certificates. This, he contended, justice
demanded, and for this the public faith was pledged.

By the opposers of the bill which related to the assumption
of the state debts, the constitutional authority of the federal gov-
ernment for this purpose was questioned, and the policy and jus-
tice of the measure controverted.

To cancel the several debts which congress thus undertook to
discharge, the proceeds of public lands, Tying in the western ter-
ritory, were directed to be applied, together with the surplus
revenue, and a loan of two millions of dollars, which the president
was authorized to borrow, at an interest of five per cent.

This measure laid the foundation of public credit upon such
a basis, that government paper soon rose from two shillings and
sixpence to twenty shillings on the pound, and, indeed, for u
short time, was above par. Individuals, who had purchased cer-
tificates of public debt low, realized immense fortunes. A p-en

244 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

eral spring was given to the affairs of the nation. A spirit of
enterprise, of agriculture, and commerce, universally prevailed,
and the foundation was thus laid for that unrivalled prosperity
which the United States, in subsequent years, enjoyed.

8. During this session of congress, a bill was passed,
fixing the seat of government for ten years at Philadel-
phia, and, from and after that time, permanently at
Washington, on the Potomac.

9. On the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont , by consent
of congress, became one of the United States.

The tract of country, which is now known by the name of
Vermont, was. settled at a much later period than any other of
the eastern states. The governments of New York and Massa-
chusetts made large grants of territory in the direction of Ver-
mont; but it was not until 1724, that any actual possession was
taken of land within the present boundaries of the state. In
that year, Fort Durance was built, by the officers of Massachusetts,
on Connecticut river. On the other side of the state, the French
advanced up Lake Champlain, and, in 1731, built Crown Point,
and began a settlement on the eastern shore of the lake.

Vermont being supposed to fall within the limits of New
Hampshire, that government made large grants of land to settlers,
even west of Connecticut river. New York, however, conceived
herself to have a better right to the territory, in consequence of
the grant of Charles II. to his brother, the Duke of York. These
states being thus at issue, the case was submitted to the English
crown, which decided in favor of New York, and confirmed its
jurisdiction as far as Connecticut river. In this decision New
Hampshire acquiesced; but, New York persisting in its claims to
land east of the river, actions of ejectment were instituted in the
courts at Albany, which resulted in favor of the New York title.
The settlers, however, determined to resist the officers of justice,
and, under Ethan Allen, associated together to oppose the New
York militia, which were called out to enforce the laws.

On the commencement of the revolution, the people of Ver-
mont were placed in an embarrassing situation. They had not
even a form of government. The jurisdiction of New \rork be-
ing disclaimed, and allegiance to the British crown refused, every
tning was effected by voluntary agreement. \n January, 1777, a
convention met, and proclaimed that the district before known
by the name of the New Hampshire Grants, was of right a free
and independent jurisdiction, and should be henceforth called
JS'eic Connecticut, alias Vermont. The convention proceeded to
make known their proceedings to congress, and petitioned to be
admitted into the confederacy. To this New York objected, andj

Washington's administration. 245

fcr a time, prevailed. Other difficulties arose with New Hamp-
shire and Massachusetts, each of which laid claim to land within
the present boundaries of the state. At the peace of 1783, Ver-
mont found herself a sovereign and independent state de facto,
united with no confederation, and therefore unembarrassed by
the debts that weighed down the other states. New York still
claimed jurisdiction over the state, but was unable to enforce it ;
and the state government was administered as regularly as in
any of the other states. After the formation of the federal con-
stitution, Vermont again requested admission into the Union.
The opposition of New York was still strong, but, in 1789, waa
finally withdrawn, upon the agreement of Vermont to pay her
the sum of thirty thousand dollars. Thus terminated a contro-
versy, which had been carried on with animosity, and with in-
jury to both parties, for twenty-six years. A convention was
immediately called, by which it was resolved to join the federal
Union. Upon application to congress, their consent was readily
given, antf, on the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont was added to the
United States.

10. At the time that congress assumed the state debts,
during their second session, the secretary of the treasury
had recommended a tax on domestic spirits, to enable
them to pay the interest. The discussion of the bill,
having been postponed to the third session, was early in
that session taken up. The tax, contemplated by the
bill, was opposed with great vehemence, by a majority
of southern and western members, on the ground
that it was unnecessary and unequal, and would be par-
ticularly burdensome upon those parts of the Union
which could not, without very great expense, procure
foreign ardent spirits. Instead of this tax, these mem-
bers proposed an increased duty on imported articles
generally, a particular duty on molasses, a direct tax, or
a tax on salaries, &c. &c. After giving rise to an an-
gry and protracted debate, the bill passed by a majority
of thirty-five to twenty-one.

11. The secretary next appeared with a recommen-
dation for a national bank. A bill, conformed to his
plan, being sent down from the senate, was permitted
to progress, unmolested, in the house of representatives,

to the third reading. On the final reading, an unex-
oi a

246 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

pected opposition appeared against it, on the ground
that banking systems were useless; that the proposed
bill was defective ; but especially that congress was not
vested, by the constitution, with the competent power to
establish a national bank.

These several objections were met, by the supporters
of the bill, with much strength of argument. After a
debate of great length, supported with the ardor excited
by the importance of the subject, the bill was carried in
the affirmative, by a majority of nineteen voices.

A bill which had been agitated with so much warmth, in the
house of representatives, the executive was now called upon to
examine with reference to its sanction or rejection. The presi-
dent required the opinions of the cabinet in writing. The secre-
tary of state, Mr. Jefferson, and the attorney-general, Mr. Ran-
dolph, considered the bill as decidedly unconstitutional. The
secretary of the treasury, Mr. Hamilton, with equal decision,
maintained the opposite opinion. A deliberate investigation of
the subject satisfied the president, both of the constitutionality
and utility of the bill, upon which he gave it his signature.

The capital stock of the bank was ten millions of dollars, twc
millions to be subscribed for the benefit of the United States,
and the residue by individuals. One fourth of the sums sub-
scribed by individuals was to be paid in gold and silver, and three
fourths in the public debt. By the act of incorporation, it was
to be a bank of discount as well as deposit, and its bills, which
were payable in gold and silver on demand, were made receivable
in all payments to the United States. The bank was located at
Philadelphia, with power in the directors to establish offices of
discount and deposit only wherever they should think fit, within
the United States.

The duration of the charter was limited to the fourth of May,
1811 ; and the faith of the United States was pledged, that, dur-
ing that period, no other bank should be established under their
authority. One of the fundamental articles of the incorporation
was, that no loan should be made to the United States, for more
than one hundred thousand dollars, or to any particular state, for
more than fifty thousand, or to any foreign prince, or state, un-
less previously authorized by a law of the United States. The
books were opened for subscriptions in July, 1791, and a much
larger sum subscribed than was allowed by the charter ; and the
bank went into successful operation.*

The bill which had now passed, with those relating to the

* Pitkin

Washington's administration. 24?

finances of the country, the assumption of the state debts, the fund-
ing of the national debt, &c, contributed greatly to the complete
organization of those distinct and visible parties, which, in their
long and ardent conflict for power, have since shaken the United
States to their centre.

12. While matters of high importance were occu-
pying the attention, and party strife and conflicting
interests were filling the counsels of congress with agi-
tation, an Indian war opened on the north-western frontier
of the states. Pacific arrangements had been attempted
by the president with the hostile tribes, without effect.
On the failure of these, an offensive expedition was
planned against the tribes north-west of the Ohio.

The command of the troops, consisting of three hundred regu-
lars, and about one thousand two hundred Pennsylvania and
Kentucky militia, was given to Gen. Harmar, a veteran officer
of the revolution. His instructions required him, if possible, to
bring the Indians to an engagement ; but, in any event, to de-
stroy their settlements on the waters of the Scioto, a river falling
into the Ohio, and the Wabash, in the Indiana territory. In
this expedition, Harmar succeeded in destroying some villages,
and a "quantity of grain, belonging to the Indians; but in an en-
gagement with them, near Chilicothe, he was routed with con-
siderable loss.

Upon the failure of Gen. Harmar, Major- General Arthur St
Clair was appointed to succeed him. Under the authority of an
act of congress, the president caused a body of levies to be raised
for six months, for the Indian service.

13. Having arranged the north-western expedition,
directing St. Clair to destroy the Indian villages on the
Miami, and to drive the savages from the Ohio, the pres-
ident commenced a tour through the Southern States sim-
ilar to that which he made through the northern and
central parts of the Union, in 1789.

The same expressions of respect and affection awaited him, in
every stage of his tour, which had been so zealously accorded to
him in the north. Here, also, he enjoyed the high satisfaction of
witnessing the most happy effects, resulting from the administra-
tion of that government over which he presided.

14. In December, intelligence was received by the
president, that the army under Gen. St. Clair, in a bat*

248 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

tie with the Indians, near the Miami, in Ohio, had been
totally defeated, on the 4th of the preceding month.

The army of St. Clair amounted to near one thousand five
hundred men. The Indian force consisted of nearly the same
number. Of the loss of the Indians, no estimate could be formed ;
but the loss of the Americans was unusually severe i thirty-eight
commissioned officers were killed in the field, and five hundred
and ninety-three non-commissioned officers and privates were
slain and missing. Between two and three hundred officers and
privates were wounded, many of whom afterwards died. This
result of the expedition was as unexpected as unfortunate ; but
no want either of ability, zeal, or intrepidity, was ascribed, by a
committee of congress, appointed to examine the causes of its
failure, to the commander of the expedition.

15. Upon the news of St. Clair's defeat, a bill was in-
troduced into congress for raising three additional regi-
ments of infantry, and a squadron of cavalry, to serve
for three years, if not sooner discharged. This bill,
although finally carried, met with an opposition more
warm and pointed, from the opposers of the administra-
tion, than any which had before been agitated in- the
house.

By those who opposed the bill, it was urged, that the war with
the Indians was unjust ; that militia would answer as well, and
even better, than regular troops, and would be less expensive to
support ; that adequate funds could not be provided ; and, more
than all, that ihis addition of one regiment to the army after
another, gave fearful intimation of monarchical designs on the
part of those who administered the government.

On the other hand, the advocates of the bill contended, that
the war was a war of self-defence ; that, between the years 1783
and 1790, not less than one thousand five hundred inhabitants of
Kentucky, or emigrants to that country, and ptobably double
that number, had been massacred by the Indians ; and that re-
peated efforts had been made by the government to obtain a peace,
notwithstanding which, the butcheries of the savages still con-
tinued in their most appalling forms.

16. On the 8th of May, 1792, congress adjourned to
the first Monday in November. The asperity which, on
more than one occasion, had discovered itself in the
course of debate, was a certain index of the growing
exasperation of parties. With their adjournment, the

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 249

conflicting feelings of members in a measure subsided ;
the opposition, however, to the administration, had be-
come fixed. It was carried into retirement, was in-
fused by members into their constituents, and a party
was thus formed throughout the nation, hostile to the
plans of government adopted by Washington, and his
friends in the cabinet.

17. On the 1st of June, 1792, Kentucky, by act of
congress, was admitted into the Union as a state.

The country now called Kentucky was well known to the
Indian traders, many years before its settlement. By whom it
was first explored is a matter of uncertainty, and has given rise
to controversy. In 1752, a map was published by Lewis Evans,
of the country on the Ohio and Kentucky rivers ; and it seems
that one James Macbride, with others, visited this region in 1754.
No further attempt was made to explore the country until 1767,
when John Finley, of North Carolina, travelled over the ground
on the Kentucky river, called by the Indians, " the dark and
bloody ground." On returning to Carolina, Finley communicat-
ed his discoveries to Col. Daniel Boone, who, in 1769, with some
others, undertook to explore the country. After a long and fa-
tiguing march, they discovered the beautiful valle}* of Kentucky.
Col. Boone continued an inhabitant of this wilderness until 1771,
when he returned to his family for the purpose of removing them,
and forming a settlement in the new country. In 1773, having
made the necessary preparations, he set out again with five fam-
ilies and forty men, from Powell's Valley, and, after various im-
pediments, reached the Kentucky river, in March, 1775, where
he commenced a settlement.

In the years 1778, 1779, and 1780, a considerable number of
persons emigrated to Kentucky ; yet, in this latter year, after an
unusually severe winter, the inhabitants were so distressed, that
they came to the determination of abandoning the country for
ever. They were fortunately diverted from this step by th«»
arrival of emigrants. During the revolutionary war, they suf-
fered severelv from the Indians incited by the British govern-
ment. In 1778, Gen. Clarke overcame the Indians, and laid
waste their villages. From this time, the inhabitants began to
feel more secure, and the settlements were extended. In 1779,
the legislature of Virginia, within whose limits this region lay,
erected it into a county. In 1762, a supreme court, with an attor-
ney-general, was established within the district In the years
17d3, 1784, and 1785, the district was laid out into counties, and
a great part of the country surveyed and patented. In 1785,
an attempt was made to form an independent state but, a major-

250 period vii.— 1789 to 1797. ,

!ty of the inhabitants being opposed to the measure, it was de
laved until December, 1790, when it became a separate state.

"in 1792, as stated above, it was admitted into the Union. Th«
growth of Kentucky has been rapid, and she has obtained a re-
spectable rank and influence among her sister states.

18. During the recess of congress, preparations were \
hastened by the president, for a vigorous prosecution of
the war with the Indians ; but such small inducements
were presented to engage in the service, that a sufficient
number of recruits could not be raised to authorize an
expedition against them the present year. As the clam-
or against the war, by the opposers of the administration,
was still loud, the president deemed it advisable, while
preparations for hostilities were advancing, to make
another effort at negotiation with the unfriendly Indians.
The charge of this business was committed to Col. Har-
den and Maj. Freeman, two brave officers, and valuable
men, who were murdered by the savages.

19. On the opening of the next congress, in Novem-
ber, a motion was made to reduce the military establish-
ment; but it did not prevail. The debate on this subject
was peculiarly earnest, and the danger of standing
armies was powerfully urged. This motion, designed
as a reflection upon the executive, was followed by sev-
eral resolutions, introduced by Mr. Giles, tending to
criminate the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Hamilton,
of misconduct, in relation to certain loans, negotiated
under his direction.

In three distinct reports, sent to the house, the secre-
tary offered every required explanation, and ably defend-
ed himself against the attacks of the opposition. Mr.
Giles, and some others, however, were not satisfied :
other resolutions were, therefore, offered, which, although
rejected, were designed to fix upon the secretary the
reputation of an. ambitious man, aiming at the acquisi-
tion of dangerous power.

During these discussions, vehement attacks were made upon
the secretary, in the public prints. Hints also were suggested
against the president himself; and although he was not openlj

Washington's administration. 251

accused of being the head of the federal party, of favoring their
cause, or designing to subvert the liberties of his country, yet it
was apparent that such suspicions were entertained of him.

On the 3d of March, 1793, a constitutional period
was put to the existence of this congress. The members
separated with obvious symptoms of irritation ; and it
was not to be doubted that their efforts would be exert-
ed to communicate to their constituents the feelings
which agitated their bosoms.

20. The time had now arrived, 1793, when the elec-
tors of the states were again called upon to choose a
chief magistrate of the Union. Washington had deter-
mined to withhold himself from being again elected to
the presidency, and to retire from the cares of political
life. Various considerations, however, prevented the
declaration of his wishes, and he was again unanimously
elected to the chair of state. Mr. Adams was re-elected
vice-president.

21. Through the unceasing endeavors of the president
to terminate the Indian war, a treaty had been negoti-
ated with the Indians, on the Wabash ; and, through the
intervention of the Six Nations, those of the Miamis had
consented to a conference during the ensuing spring.
Offensive operations were, therefore, suspended, although
the recruiting service was industriously urged, and as-
siduous attention was paid to the discipline and prepara-
tion of the troops.

22. The Indian war, though of real importance, was
becoming an object of secondary consideration. The
revolution in France was now progressing, and began so
to affect our relation with that country, as to require an
exertion of all the wisdom and firmness of the govern-
ment. Early in April, also, information was received
of the declaration of war by France against England and
Holland.

This event excited the deepest interest in the United States
A large majority of the people, grateful for the aid that France
had given us in our revolution, and devoted to the cause of lib-
erty, were united in fervent wishes for the success of the French

252 period vii. — 1789 to 1797.

republic * At the same time, the prejudices against Great Brit
ain, which had taken deep root during the revolution, now
sprung forth afresh, and the voice of many was heard, urging
the propriety of the United States making a common cause with
France against Great Britain.

A pressing occurrence had called Washington to
Mount Vernon, when intelligence arrived of the rupture
between France and England. Hastening his return to
Philadelphia, he summoned the attention of his cabinet
to several questions, respecting the course of conduct
proper for the United States to observe in relation to the
belligerents.

Although sensible of the prejudices existing in the
country against Great Britain, and of the friendly dispo-
sition which prevailed towards France, it was the unan-
imous opinion of the cabinet, that a strict neutrality
should be observed by the United States towards the
contending powers. The council was also unanimous,
that a minister from the French republic should be re-
ceived, should one be sent. In accordance with the ad-
vice of his cabinet, the president issued his proclamation
of neutrality, on the 22d of April, 1793.

This proclamation, being without legislative sanction, soon
became the subject of loud invective. The opposition party,
through the press, pronounced it "a royal edict," an assumption
of power on the part of the president, and a proof of his monarchi-
cal disposition. They denounced the conduct of the executive
as dishonorable, and an act of neutrality, as high ingratituae
towards France, the firm and magnanimous ally of the United

* The revolution in France commenced about the year 1789. It seems to
have been hastened, or brought on, by the new ideas of freedom, which had
been imbibed by the French army inthe United States, and thence dissem-
inated among the people of France, for a long time oppressed and degraded
by a despotic government. Unfortunately, the revolution fell into the hands
of selfish and unprincipled men, who, in 1793, executed their king. Louia
XVI., and, soon after, his family, and murdered or imprisoned those who
were suspected of hostility to their views, and involved France in a scene
of guilt and bloodshed, which cannot be contemplated without horror. In
the first stages of this revolution, the friends of liberty throughout the world
were full of hopes for a melioration of the political condition of France ;
but these hopes were soon blasted by the sanguinary steps adopted by the
revolutionists. Had they been men governed by reason and religion, instead
of unbridled ambition ; actuated by a philanthropic regard to the good of the
people, instead of a selfish thirst of power; France to this day might have
enjoyed the blessings of a free government.

Washington's administration. 253

States, which had assisted in achieving the liberties of the
country.

23. As was anticipated, the republic of France re-
called the minister of the crown, and appointed a min-
ister of its own, Mr. Genet, to succeed him. His mis-
sion had for its object the enlisting of America in the
cause of France, against Great Britain. Flattered by
the manner in which he was received by the people, as
well as by their professions of attachment to his country,
Mr. Genet early anticipated the accomplishment of his
object. Presuming too much upon this attachment, he
was led into a series of acts infringing the neutrality
proclaimed by the president. He also attempted to
rouse the people against the government, because it did
not second all his views. At length, on the advice of
his cabinet, the president solicited of the French re-
public the recall of Mr. Genet, and the appointment of
some one to succeed him. Monsieur Fauchet was ap-
pointed, and was instructed to assure the American gov-
ernment, that France totally disapproved of the conduct
of his predecessor.

Mr. Genet, on his arrival in the country, landed at Charleston,
S. C. He was received by the governor of that state, and by the
citizens, with a flow of enthusiastic feeling, equalled only bv
that which had been evinced towards his nation at the conquest
of York town.

Soon after landing at Charleston, he began to authorize the fit-
ting and arming of vessels in that port, enlisting men, and giv-
ing commissions to cruise and commit hostilities against nations
with which the United States were at peace. Vessels captured
by these cruisers were brought into port, and the consuls of
France, under the authority of Genet, not yet recognized as a
minister by the American government, assumed the power of
holding courts of admiralty on them, of trying and condemning
them, and of authorizing their sale.

On the meeting of congress, December. 1793, the proclamation
of neutrality was approved by them, as well as the conduct of the
government towards Mr. Genet.

Finding on most questions, arising between the French minis-
ter and the government of the United States, a wide and an in-
creasing difference of views, and perceiving no beneficial effects
22

254 period vii. — 1789 to 1797.

resulting from his continuance in that character, the cabinet
unanimously advised his recall.

24. 1794. On the last day of December, 1793, Mr.
Jefferson, the secretary of state, resigned his office, and
was succeeded by Edmund Randolph, the then attorney-
general. This latter office was filled by William Brad-
ford, a gentleman of considerable eminence in Pennsyl-
vania.

25. During the session of congress this year, a resolu-
tion passed to provide a naval force adequate to the pro-
tection of the commerce of the United States against
the Algerine corsairs. The force proposed was to con-
sist of six frigates, four of forty-four, and two of thirty-six
guns.

This measure was founded upon the communications of the
president, from which it appeared that the prospect of being able
to negotiate a treaty of peace with the dey of Algiers was doubt
ful ; that eleven American merchant vessels, and upwards of one
hundred citizens, had been captured by them ; and that further
preparations were making for a renewed attack upon unprotect-
ed vessels belonging to the United States.

26. During this session of congress, a law passed,
prohibiting the carrying on of the slave trade from the
American ports.

England had been actively engaged ;n the slave trade nearly
fifty years, when the first settlement was effected in Virginia.
Slavery was early introduced into the American colonies. The
first slaves, about twenty in number, were brought to Virginia, in
1619, by a Dutch ship. The importation of them gradually in-
creased, and although principally bought by the southern plant-
ers, slaves were soon found, in great numbers, in all the colo-
nies. In 1784, they amounted to six hundred thousand ; in 1790,
to six hundred and ninety-seven thousand six hundred and
ninety-six.

A disgust towards this inhuman traffic appeared very early in
the colonies ; but it was countenanced and patronized by the
English government, and thus introduced into, and fastened
upon the country, without the power, on the part of the colonies,
to arrest it.

In Massachusetts, in 1645, a law was made, " prohibiting the
buying and selling of slaves, except those taken in lawful war
or reduced to servitude by their crimes." In 1703, the same
r.olony imposed a heavy duty on every negro imported; and, in

Washington's administration. 255

a subsequent law on the subject, they called the practice " the tin-
natural and unaccountable custom of enslaving mankind." In Vir-
ginia, as early as 1G99, attempts were made to repress the impor-
tation of slaves, by heavy duties. These, and other acts, show
that the North American provinces would, if left to themselves,
have put an end to the importation of slaves, before the era of
their independence.

In 1778, Virginia abolished the traffic by law ; Connecticut,
Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, prohibited it be-
fore the year 1789. The continental congress passed a resolu-
tion against the purchase of slaves imported from Africa, and
exhorted the colonies to abandon the trade altogether. The third
congress of the United States, as stated above, prohibited the
trade, by law. Thus we see, in the United States, a very early
and settled aversion to the slave trade manifesting itself; and be-
fore European nations had consented to relinquish it, several of
the states had utterly prohibited it.

27. At this session, also, several measures were adopt-
ed in anticipation of a war with Great Britain, growing
out of her commercial restrictions, which bore heavy, and
operated most unjustly, upon the United States. Bills
were passed for laying an embargo for thirty days — for
erecting fortifications — for organizing the militia, and
increasing the standing army. As an adjustment of dif-
ferences, however, seemed desirable, Mr. Jay was ap-
pointed envoy extraordinary to the court of St. James,
and succeeded in negotianug a treaty with Great Britain
the following veer.

Among the offensive acts of the government of Great Britain,
was an order of June, 1793, prohibiting the exportation of corn
to France, and authorizing the capture of neutral vessels carrying
it thither. Under this order, many American vessels were cap-
tnred, and carried into England. In November following, addi-
tional instructions were given by the British cabinet, to ships of
war and privateers, to bring into port, for trial, all ships laden
with goods from France, or her colonies, and such as were carry-
ing provisions, or other supplies, to either. To these causes of
complaint, Great Britain had added another, viz. neglecting to
deliver up the western posts according to treaty.

While measures were taking, in anticipation of war, the presi-
dent received advices from England, that the order of November
had been considerably modified ; that most of the merchant \es-
sels which had been carried into port for trial, would be released;

256 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

and that a disposition for peace with the United States existed in
the British cabinet.

These advices opened to the president the prospect of restoring
a good understanding between the two nations, and induced him
immediately to nominate an envoy to settle existing differences,
and to negotiate commercial arrangements. The nomination of
Mr. Jay was approved, in the senate, by a majority often.

To those opposed to the administration, no step could have
been more unexpected or disagreeable, than this decisive meas-
ure of the president. Prejudices against Great Britain had
risen to their height, and hostilities against her were loudly de-
manded, as both just and necessary. It was not singular, there-
fore, that, for this act, the president should receive the severest
censures of the opposition party, nor that all who favored his
efforts for peace should be included in the general denunciation.

28. The suspension of hostilities against the Indians
in the north-west, in consequence of their consenting to
a conference in the spring of 1794, has already been
noticed. (Sec. 21.) This effort to conclude a treaty with
them failing, Gen. Wayne, who had succeeded Gen. St.
Clair, engaged the Indians, August 20th, 1794, on the
banks of the Miami, and gained a complete victory over
them.

The American troops engaged in this battle did not exceed
nine hundred; the Indians amounted to two thousand. In this
decisive engagement, Gen. Wayne lost one hundred and seven
in killed and wounded, including officers. After the battle, he
proceeded to lay waste the whole Indian country. By means of
this victory over the Miamis, a general war with the Six Nations,
and all the tribes north-west of the Ohio, was prevented.

29. This year, 1794, was distinguished by an insur-
rection in Pennsylvania, known by the name of the
" Whiskey Insurrection," growing out of laws enacted
by congress, in 1791, laying duties on spirits distilled
within the United States, and upon stills. In August,
the president issued his proclamation, commanding the
insurgents to disperse. This not having the desired
effect, a respectable body of militia was ordered out, un-
der Gov. Lee, of Maryland, on whose approach the in-
surgents laid down their arms, solicited the clemency of

Washington's administration. 257

the government, and promised future submission to

the laws.

From the time that duties were laid upon spirits distilled with-
in the United States, &c, combinations were formed, in the four
western counties of Pennsylvania, to prevent their collection.
Numerous meetings were held at different times and places, at
which resolutions were passed, and, in several instances, vio-
lences were committed upon the officers of the revenue. Eigh-
teen of the insurgents were taken, and tried for treason, but not
convicted.

30. 1795. January 1st, Col. Hamilton resigned the
office of secretary of the treasury, and was succeeded
by Oliver Wolcott, of Connecticut. Nearly at the same
time, Timothy Pickering succeeded Gen. Knox, in the
department of war.

31. In June, Mr. Jay having succeeded in negotiating
a treaty with Great Britain, the senate was convened to
consider its merits. After an elaborate discussion of it,
that body advised to its ratification by a majority of
twenty to ten. Notwithstanding the great opposition to
it that prevailed among the enemies of Great Britain,
the president gave it his signature. Contrary to the
predictions of many in the country, the treaty settled
existing difficulties between the two nations, prevented
a war, which previously seemed fast approaching, and
proved of great advantage to the United States.

The treaty, when published, found one party prepared for its
condemnation, while the other was not ready for its defence.
Time was necessary for a judicious and careful consideration of
its merits.

In the populous cities, meetings were immediately called, and
resolutions and addresses forwarded to the president requesting
him to withhold his assent. Upon the president, however, these
had no other effect, than to induce him to weigh still more care
fully the merits of the treaty. When, at length, he was satisfied
of its utility, he signed it, although he thereby incurred the cen-
sures of a numerous portion of the citizens.

32. In the course of the following autumn, treaties
were concluded with the dey of Algiers, and with the
Miaruis in the west. By the former treaty, American

22*

258 period vii.-— 1789 to 1797.

citizens, in captivity in Algiers, were liberated ; and by
the latter, the western frontiers of the United States
were secured from savage invasion. A treaty with Spain
soon after followed, by which the claims of the United
States, on the important points of boundary, and the
navigation of the Mississippi, were fully conceded.

33. On the first of June, 1796, Tennessee was ad.
mitted, by act of congress, into the Union as a state.

Tennessee derives its name from its principal river. This
name, in the language of the Indians, signifies a curved spoon,
the curvature, to their imaginations, resembling that of the river
Tennessee.

The territory of Tennessee was granted, in 1064, by Charles
II. to the Earl of Clarendon, and others, being included in the
limits of the Carolinas. About the beginning of the next century,
Carolina was divided into two provinces, and Tennessee fell to
the lot of tne northern province. Near the year 1754, fifty fam-
ilies were settled on the Cumberland river, where Nashville now
stands ; but they were dislodged by the savages soon after. In
1765, a number of emigrants settled themselves beyond the pres-
ent limits of North Carolina, and were the first of the colonists
of Tennessee. By the year 1773, the inhabitants had considera-
bly increased. When the constitution of North Carolina was
formed, in 1776, that district sent deputies to the meeting. In
the year 1780, a small colony of about forty families, under the
direction of James Robertson, crossed the mountains, and settled
on the Cumberland river, where they founded Nashville. In 1785,
the inhabitants of Tennessee, feeling the inconveniences of a
government so remote as that in the capital of North Carolina,
endeavored to form an independent one, to which they intended
to give the name of the " State of Franklin ;" but, differing among
themselves, the scheme for the time was abandoned, in 1789,
the legislature of North Carolina passed an act ceding the terri-
tory, on certain conditions, to the United States. Congress, in
the following year, accepted the cession, and by another act,
passed on the 26th of May, 1790, provided for its government
under the title of "The territory of the United States, south of
the Ohio." In 1796, congress passed an act enabling the people
to form a state constitution, which having been adopted and ap-
proved, Tennessee was acknowledged as a sovereign state in the
Union.

34. On the meeting of congress in 1796, resolutions
were passed to carry into effect the treaties negotiated

ADMINISTRATION. 259

the preceding year. On the subject of the treaty with
Great Britain, the liveliest sensibility still prevailed.
After a spirited and protracted debate of seven weeks,
on the subject of making the necessary arrangements for
this treaty, resolutions to that effect passed the house by
a majority of only three.

35. As the time for a new election of the chief magis-
trate of the Union approached, Gen. Washington signi-
fied his intention to retire from public life. Wishing to
terminate his political course with an act suitable to his
own character, and permanently useful to his country-
men, he published a valedictory address to the people of
the United States, fraught with maxims of the highest
political importance, and with sentiments of the warm-
est affection for his country.

In conclusion, this great and good man bore his solemn testi-
mony to the importance of religion and morality, as intimately
connected with political prosperity. " Of all the dispositions and
habits which lead to political prosperity," he observed, "religion
and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man
claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these
great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties
of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious
man, ought to respect and cherish them. A volume could not
trace all their connections with private and public felicity. Let
it simply be asked, Where is the security for property, for reputa-
tion, for life, if the sense of religious obligations desert the oaths
which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice ?
And let us with caution indulge the supposition, that morality
can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded
to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar struc-
ture, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national
VtOrality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle."

36. In February, 1797, the votes for his successor
were opened and counted in the presence of both houses
of congress. The highest number appearing in favor of
Mr. Adams, he was declared to be elected president of
the United States, for the four years ensuing, commeno
ins on the 4th of March. Mr. Jefferson succeeded Mr,
Adams in the vice-presidency.

360 period vii.— 1789 to 1797.

NOTES.

37. Manners. We can remark, during this period,
no very distinct change in the manners of the people
of the United States, except that the introduction of
French philosophy seems to have affected, in some de-
gree, the sober habits and strict morality of the people,
which, although relaxed by the war, had now begun to
resume their influence.

33. Religion. At the close of the preceding period^
we observed that religion had revived, in a degree, from
the injuries it suffered during the revolutionary war; and
we might have expected, that, under the auspices of a
wise and settled government, conducted by a practical
Christian like Washington, it would have acquired a still
more commanding influence. Such, however, was not
the fact.

As the people of the United States heartily espoused
the cause of the revolution in France, and sympathized
with that people, in their struggle for freedom, it was but
too natural, that the sentiments of the revolutionists, on
other than political subjects, should be imbibed. As the
French revolutionists were alsiost universally deists, or
atheists, these sentiments were extensively spread over
the United States.

For a time, the boldness of the enterprises, the splendor of the
victories, and the importance of the conquests, achieved by the
French republic, promoted the extension of French infidelity in the
United States. " Most eyes," says Dr. Dwight, " were disabled
from seeing the nature of the purposes which the revolutionists
had in view, and of the characters which were exhibited on this
singular stage. In the agitation and amazement excited in all
men. few retained so steady optics as to discern, without confu
sion. the necessary consequences of this stupendous shock.'"

Infidelity was also greatly extended, at this time, by the writ
ings of Paine, Godwin, and others, which were industriously
circulated through the country.* The perspicuous and sim-

* Godwin's Political Justice, and Paine's Age of Reason, powerfully
urged on the tide of infidelity. An enormous edition of the latter publica-
tion was printed in France, and sent to America, to be sold for a few pence
wlv ; and Where it could not be sold, it was given away.

Washington's administration. 261

pie style of Paine, his keen powers of ridicule, directed against
the Bible, and above all, the gratitude which multitudes felt for
the aid his pen had given to our revolution, contributed to im-
part to him a peculiarly powerful influence. His vicious life,
however, and the horrible enormities committed by the French
revolutionists, gave such a fearful comment upon their principles,
as at length, in a great measure, to bring them into discredit, and
to arrest their growing influence.

39. Trade and Commerce. These flourished, dur-
ing this period, beyond all former example. m In 1797,
the exports of the United States, of all kinds, amounted
to fifty-six millions eight hundred and fifty thousand two
hundred and six dollars. The imports amounted to sev-
enty-five millions three hundred and seventy-nine thou-
sand four hundred and six dollars. Our vessels visited
every part of the world, and brought wealth and luxu-
ries from every country.

40. Agriculture. Aside from the importance of
agriculture, as furnishing us with the greatest portion of
our food, it began now to derive greater consequence,
as furnishing materials for our manufactures, and, still
more, as contributing largely to our exports. In 1796,
it was estimated that three fourths of the inhabitants of
the United States, if not a greater proportion, were em-
ployed in agricultural pursuits.

41. Arts and Manufactures. During this period,
manufactures attracted the attention of government.
Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, made a report
to congress, on the subject, in which he set forth their
importance to the country, and urged the policy of aid-
ing them. Since that time, the revenue laws have been
framed with the view to the encouragement of manu-
factures, and their promotion has been considered as u
part of the settled policy-of the United States. Although
the flourishing state of commerce commanded the atten-
tion, and absorbed the capital of the country, in some
degree, to the exclusion of other objects, still manufac-
tures made considerable progress.

42. Population. The inhabitants of the United

262 period vii.— 1789 -to 1797.

States, at the close of this period, amounted to about
five millions.

43. Education. The adoption of the federal consti-
tution placed the political affairs of the United States on
a permanent basis ; and since that period, learning has
flourished.

In 1791, the University of Vermont was established at Burling-
ton; Williams' College, Massachusetts, in 1793 ; Union College,
at Schenectady, New York, and Greenville College, Tennessee,
in 1794 ; Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, in Maine, 1796. An
Historical Society was formed in Massachusetts, in 1791, and in-
corporated in 1794. It has published twenty-three volumes of
documents designed to illustrate the past and present state of the
country.

•

REFLECTIONS.

44. A short time since, we were occupied in considering the
United States struggling for independence, under Washington,
as a leader of their armies. Under his guidance, we saw them
triumph, and become a free nation. We have also seen them,
with Washington at the head of the convention, forming our ex-
cellent constitution. We note see them, with Washington their
chief magistrate, taking their place among the sovereignties of
the earth, and launching forth on the full tide of successful ex-
periment.

Under Washington, as our leader, we won our independence ,
formed our constitution ; established our government. And what
reward does he ask for services like these ? Does he ask a dia-
dem ? Does he lay his hand upon our national treasury ? Does
he claim to be emperor of the nation that had risen up under his
auspices ? No. Although " first in war, first in peace, first in the
hearts of his countrymen," — he sublimely retires to the peaceful
occupations of rural life, content with the honor of having been
instrumental in achieving the independence, and securing the
happiness of his country.

There is no parallel in history to this ' By the side of Wash
ington, Alexander is degraded to a selfish destroyer of his race ,
Caesar becomes the dazzled votary of power; and Bonaparte, a
baffled aspirant to universal dominion.

Washington has been the theme of eulogy in every nation.
" His military successes," it has been well said, " were more
solid than brilliant, and judgment, rather than enthusiasm, regu-
lated his conduct in battle. In the midst of the inevitable dis-
oider of camps, and the excesses inseparable from civil war,

Washington's administration. 263

humanity always found a refuge in his tent. In the mcrning of
triumph, and in the darkness of adversity, he was alike serene ;
at all times tranquil as wisdom and simple as virtue. After the
acknowledgment of American independence, when the unani-
mous suffrages of a free people called him to administer their
government, his administration, partaking of his character, waa
mild and firm at home, noble and prudent abroad."*

* Inchiquin'a Lettsns.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD VIII.

DISTINGUISHED FOR ADAMs's ADMINISTRATfON.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Adams,
1797, to the Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson, as
President of the United States, 1801.

Sec. 1. On the fourth of March, 1797, Mr. Adams,
in the presence of the senate, of the officers of the
general and state governments, and a numerous con-
course of spectators, took the oath of office, as president
of the United States.

The condition of the country, at the close of Wash-
ington's administration, and the commencement of Mr.
Adams's, was greatly improved from that of 1789, the
period at which the former entered upon his office.

At home, a sound credit had been established; an immense
floating debt had been funded in a manner perfectly satisfactory
to the creditors, and an ample revenue had been provided.
Those difficulties, which a system of internal taxation, on its
first introduction, is doomed to encounter, were completely re-
moved ; and the authority of the government was firmly es-
tablished.

Funds for the crradual payment of the debt had been provided;
a considerable part of it had actually been discharged ; and that
system which is now operating its entire extinction, had been
matured and adopted. The agricultural and commercial wealth
of the nation had increased beyond all former example. The
numerous tribes of Indians, on the west, had been taught, by
arms and by justice, to respect the United States, and to continue
in peace.

ADAxMS*S ADMINISTRATION. 365

Abroad, the differences with Spain had been accommodated.
The free navigation of the Mississippi had been acquired, with
the use of New Orleans, as a place of deposit, for three years,
and afterwards, until some equivalent place should be designated.

Those causes of mutual exasperation, which had threatened
to involve the United States in a war with the greatest maritime
and commercial power in the world, had been removed; and the
military posts which had been occupied within their territory,
from their existence as a nation, had been evacuated. Treaties
had been formed with Algiers and Tripoli, and no captures ap-
pear to have been made by Tunis ; so that the Mediterranean
was opened to American vessels.

This bright prospect was, indeed, in part, shaded by the dis-
contents of France. But the causes of these discontents it had
been impossible to avoid, without surrendering the right of self-
government. Such was the situation of the United States at
the close of Washington's, and the commencement of Adams's
administration.

2. Just before Washington retired from office, learn-
ing that France meditated hostilities against the United
States, by way of depredations on her West India com-
merce, he had recalled Mr. Monroe, then minister to
that court, and despatched Gen. C. C. Pinckuey, minis-
ter plenipotentiary, to adjust existing differences.

Immediately upon succeeding to the presidency, Mr.
Adams received intelligence that the French republic
had announced to Gen. Pinckney its determination " not
to receive another minister from the United States, until
after the redress of grievances," &c.

On the receipt of this intelligence, the president is-
sued hie proclamation to convene congress on the 15th
of June. In his speech on that occasion, having stated
the indignity offered the United States by France, in
refusing to receive her minister, the president, in the
tone of a high-minded and independent American, urged
congress " to repel this indignity of the French govern-
ment, by a course which shall convince that government
and the world, that we are not a degraded people, hu-
miliated under a colonial spirit of fear and a sense of in-
feriority, fitted to be the miserable instruments of foreign
23

266 period viii.— 1797 to 1801

influence, and regardless of national honor, character,
and interest."

Notwithstanding this language, the president still
retained a desire for peace. Upon his recommendation,
three envoys extraordinary, C. C. Pinckney, Elbridge
Gerry, and John Marshall, were appointed to the French
republic, to carry into effect the pacific dispositions of
the United States.

3. For a considerable time, no certain intelligence
reached the country respecting the negotiations at Paris.
At length, in the winter of 1798, letters were received
from the American envoys, indicating an unfavorable
state of things ; and in the spring, despatches arrived,
which announced the total failure of the mission.

Before the French government would acknowledge the envoys,
money, by way of tribute, was demanded in explicit terms of the
United States. This being refused, an attempt was next made to
excite the fears of the American ministers for their country and
themselves. The immense power of France was painted in
glowing colors, the humiliation of the house of Austria was stated,
and the conquest of Britain was confidently anticipated. In the
friendship of France alone, they were told, could America look
for safety.

During these transactions, occasion was repeatedly taken to
insult the American government ; open war was continued to be
urged by the cruisers of France on American commerce ; and tha
flag of the United States was a sufficient justification for the cap
ture and condemnation of any vessel over which it waved.

4. Perceiving further negotiations to be in vain, con
gress now proceeded to the adoption of vigorous meas
ures for retaliating injuries, which had been sustained,
and for repelling still greater injuries, which were threat-
ened. Amongst these measures was the augmentation
df the regular army.

A regiment of artillerists and engineers was added to the per-
manent establishment, and the president was authorized to raise
twelve additional regiments of infantry, and one regiment of cav-
alry. He was also authorized to appoint officers for a provisional
army, and to receive and organize volunteer corps.

By the unanimous consent of the senate, Gen. Wash*
ington was appointed lieutenant-general and command-

, ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 267

er-in-chief of all the armies raised, or to be raised, in the
United States.

5. While preparations were thus making for war, in-
direct pacific overtures were communicated by the
French government to the president, and a willingness
expressed to accommodate existing differences on rea-
sonable terms.

Solicitous to restore that harmony and good under-
standing, which had formerly existed between tha two
countries, the president listened to these overtures, and
appointed three envoys — Oliver Ellsworth, chief justice
of the United States ; Patrick Henry,* then late govern-
or of Virginia ; and William Vans Murray, minister at
the Hague — to discuss and settle, by treaty, all contro-
versies between the United States and France.

On the arrival of these envoys at Paris, they found
the government in the hands of Bonaparte, who had not
been concerned in the transactions which had disturbed
the peace of the two countries. Negotiations were com-
menced, which terminated in a treaty of peace, Septem-
ber 30, 1800 ; soon after which the provisional army in
America was, by order of congress, disbanded.

6. On the 14th of December, 1799, Gen. Washington
expired, at his seat at Mount Vernon, in Virginia, leav-
ing a nation to mourn his loss, and to embalm his mem-
ory with their tears.

Believing, at the commencement of his complaint, that its con-
clusion would be mortal, he economized his time in arranging,
with the utmost serenity, those few concerns which required his
attention. To his physician he expressed his conviction that he
was dying ; " but," said he, " J am not afraid to </<e."

On the arrival of the news of his death at Philadelphia, Mon-
day, congress immediately adjourned. On the day succeeding,
resolutions were adopted expressive of the grief of the members,
and a committee was appointed to devise a mode by which the
national feelings should be expressed.

This committee, in their report, recommended that a marble
monument be erected by the United States, at the city of Wash-

* Before the time of embarkation, Mr. Henry died, and Gov. Davie of
tferth Carolina was appointed in his room.

268 period viii.— 1797 to 1801*

ington, to commemorate the great events of Washington's mill,
tary and political life ; that a funeral oration be delivered by a
member of congress ; that the president be requested to write a
letter of condolence to Mrs. Washington ; and that it be recom-
mended to the citizens of the United States, to wear crape on the
left arm for thirty days.

These resolutions passed both houses unanimously. The whole
nation appeared in mourning. The funeral procession at the city
of Philadelphia was grand and solemn, and the eloquent oration,
delivered on the occasion by Gen. Henry Lee, was heard with
profound attention, and with deep interest.

Throughout the United States, similar marks of affliction
were exhibited. Funeral orations were delivered, and the best
talents devoted to an expression of grief, at the loss of" the man,
first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow
citizens."

7. In 1S00, agreeably to a resolution passed in con-
gress in 1790, [Per. VII. Sec. 8.) the seat of government
was transferred from Philadelphia to the city of Wash-
ington, in the district of Columbia.

The District of Columbia is a territory of ten miles square. It
is about three hundred miles from the sea, at the head of tide
water on the Potomac, which runs through it diagonally, near
the centre. It was ceded, in 1790, to the United States, by Mary-
land and Virginia, and it is under the immediate government of
congress.

8. On the 4th of March, 1801, Mr. Adams's term of
office as president would expire. Before the arrival of
the time for a new election, it had been pretty certainly
predicted, that he could not be re-elected. His admin-
istration, through the whole course of it, had been the
subject of much popular clamor, especially by the demo-
cratic party. But the measures, which most excited the
opposition of that party, and which were most success-
fully employed to destroy the popularity of Mr. Adams's
administration, and to place the government in other
hands, were several laws passed during his presidency,
among which were the "Alien" and "Sedition" laws.

By the " alien Za?c," the president was authorized to order any
alien, whom " he should judge dangerous to the peace and safety
of the United States, &c, to depart out of the territory, within

ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 269

»\ich time " as he should judge proper, upon penalty of being
*' imprisoned for a term not exceeding three years," &c.

The design of the " sedition law" so called, was to punish the
abuse of speech, and of the press. It imposed a heavy pecuniary
fine, and imprisonment for a term of years, upon such as should
combine or conspire together to oppose any measure of govern-
ment ; upon such as should write, print, utter, publish, &c, " any
false, scandalous, and malicious writing against the government
of tbe United States, or either house of the congress of the Uni-
ted States, or the president," &c.

These acts, together with others for raising a standing army,
and imposing a direct tax and internal duties, with other causes,
so increased the opposition to Mr. Adams's administration, as to
prevent his re-election, and greatly to weaken the strength of that
party to whom he owed his elevation to the presidency.

9. The strife of parties, during the term of election-
eering, was spirited. On canvassing the votes of the
electors for president, it was found that Mr. Jefferson
and Mr. Burr had each seventy-three votes, Mr. Adams
sixty-five, and C. C. Pinckney sixty-four. As the con-
stitution provided that the person having the greatest
number of votes should be president, and Mr. Jefferson
and Mr. Burr having an equal number, it became the
duty of the house of representatives, voting by states, to
decide between these two gentlemen.

The ballot was taken for several days in succession,
February, 1801, before a choice was made. The feder-
al party generally supported Mr. Burr ; the democratic
party Mr. Jefferson. At length, after much political heat
and party animosity, the choice fell upon the latter, who
was declared to be elected president of the United States
for four years, commencing March 4th, 1801. Mr. Burr
was elected vice-president.

As this was the first time that the election of president had
come before congress, since the adoption of the constitution, a
deep interest was taken in the subject. This interest was height-
ened by the excited state of parties, into which congress itself,
and the people of tbe United States, were divided. The mode
of proceeding to the election of president, therefore, was settled
in due form and solemnity. Among other rules, it was settled,
that, after the balloting had commenced, the house should not
■ djourn, until a choice was made; that the doors of the hou>:o

270 period viii.— 1797 to 1801.

should be closed, during the balloting, except against the officers
of the house ; that, in balloting, the representatives of the respec
tive states should be so seated, that the delegation of each state
should be together. The representatives of each state were to
ballot among themselves : duplicates of these ballots were to be
made, and placed in two ballot boxes. When all the states had
thus voted, the ballot boxes were to be carried by the sergeant-
at-arms to two separate tables. The ballots were then to be
counted by tellers, eight in number, at each table. When count-
ed, the reports were to be announced from each table : if these
reports agreed, they were to be accepted, as the true votes of the
states ; if they differed, a new balloting was to be made.

On Wednesday, the 11th of February, the votes from the sev-
eral electoral colleges were counted in the senate chamber, in
presence of both houses ; and the result was declared by the
president to be, no choice — Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Burr having
each an equal number of votes.

The question therefore devolving upon the house of representa-
tives, that body returned to their chamber, wjjiere seats had been
previously prepared for the members of the senate. A call of the
members of the house, arranged according to states, was then
made ; upon which it appeared that every member was present,
except Gen. Sumpter, who was unwell, and unable to attend.
Mr. Nicholson, of Maryland, was also unwell, but attended, and
had a bed prepared for him in one of the committee rooms, to
which place the ballot-box was carried to him, by the tellers, oik
the part of the state.

The first ballot was eight states for Mr. Jefferson, six for Mr.
Burr, and two divided ; which result continued to be the same
after balloting thirty-five times. The thirty-sixth ballot deter-
mined the question.

This important decision took place at twelve o'clock on the
17th of February, when there appeared for Mr. Jefferson ten
states; for Mr. Burr four states; and the remaining two were
blank ballots. The states which voted for Mr. Jefferson were,
Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, Mary-
land, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Vermont. The
states for Mr. Burr were, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Con-
necticut, and Rhode Island. The blank states were Delaware
and South Carolina. •

NOTES.

10. Manners. Tlie manners of the people of the
United States underwent no marked change during this
period.

adams's administration. 271

11. Religion. Although infidelity does not seem to
have made much progress in the United States, during
this period, it was evident that it had taken deep root in
many minds.

Infidels, however, were less confident, and less ready to avow
their sentiments. They stood abashed before the world, at the
fearful and blood-chilling horrors which their principles had
poured out upon France. Their doctrines were, at the same time,
powerfully refuted by the ablest men both in England and Ameri-
ca. At length, they ceased to make proselytes, spoke favorably
of the Christian religion, generally admitted that it was absolute-
ly necessary to good government ; and error, with regard to re-
ligion, assumed a new form.

Towards the close of this period, a revival of religion com-
menced in New England, and seems to have been the beginning
of that series of revivals which have since overspread the United
States. Some sects, which had before regarded " revivals of re-
ligion " with suspicion or aversion, became convinced of their
utility, and began to promote them.

12. Trade and Commerce. Trade and commerce
were still prosperous, and the remarks made in respect
to them, under Period VII., apply to them during this
period.

The exports, in 1801, were ninety-three millions twenty thou-
sand five hundred and seventy-three dollars ; the imports, one
hundred and eleven millions, three hundred and sixty-three thou-
sand five hundred and eleven dollars.

13. Agriculture. Agriculture still continued to
flourish.

14. Arts and Manufactures. The general remarks
on the preceding period, relative to this subject, apply,
without material alteration, to this period.

15. Population. The number of inhabitants, at the
close of this period, was not far from five millions five
hundred thousand.

16 Education. We have nothing particular to ob-
serve in relation to education. Public and private
schools, however, were multiplied, as the people in-
creased, and as new settlements were made.

In 1798, a college was founded at Lexington. Kentucky, called

272 period viii.— 1797 to 1801.

the Transylvania University. Middlebury College, in Vermont,
was founded in 1800. At the commencement of the 18th centu
ry. there was, in New England, but one college completely
founded, but now there were six; in the colonies south of Con
necticut, there was only one, but now there were fifteen or six
teen.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD IX.

DISTINGUISHED FOR JEFFERSON^ ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Jefferson,
1801, to the Inauguration of James Madison, as Presi-
dent of the United States, 1809.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1801, Mr. Jefferson,
agreeably to the constitution, was regularly inducted into
the office of president of the United States.

2. The commencement of Mr. Jefferson's administra-
tion was marked by the removal of a great portion of
those who held responsible and lucrative offices, on the
ground, that they were too exclusively the friends of the
party opposed to that, which had elevated him to office.

3. Congress met on the 8th of December. In his
speech at the opening of the session, the president re-
commended the abolition of the internal taxes ; the re-
peal of the act passed towards the close of Mr. Adams's
administration, reorganizing the United States courts,
and erecting sixteen new judges ; and an enlargement
of the rights of naturalization. The debates on these
several topics, in both houses of congress, were extend-
ed to great length, and displayed much eloquence, argu-
ment, and warmth. The recommendation of the presi-
dent, notwithstanding the opposition, prevailed and bills
in accordance therewith were passed.

274 period ix.— 1801 to 1809.

The internal taxes, from the time of their establishment, had
been extremely unpopular with the party which had elevated
Mr. Jefferson to the presidency. It was a favorite measure,
therefore, of his, to procure their abolition.

The national judicial establishment originally consisted of a
supreme court, with six judges, who twice a year made a tour of
the United States in three circuits. Under this arrangement,
great inconveniences were experienced by the court, the bar,
and the suitors. The new arrangement in the judicial system,
and the increase of judges at the close of Mr. Adams's term, had
excited, in a large portion of the citizens, the hope of a more
prompt and impartial administration of justice. To that portion
of the community, the .repealing act was a painful disappoint-
ment.

4. In 1802, Ohio was admitted, by act of congress,
as an independent state, into the Union.

The state of Ohio derived its name from the river Ohio, which
sweeps the south-eastern border of the state.

Until 1787, it was inhabited only by Indians, a few Moravians,
and trespassers on lands belonging to the public. By virtue of
her charter, the territory was claimed by Virginia, and held by
her, although the original charter of Connecticut, extending west
to the Pacific ocean, included a great part of it.

In 1781, the legislature of Virginia ceded to the United States
all her rights to the territory north-west of the river Ohio, ex-
cepting some few military tracts. In 1788, the first settlement
was begun at Marietta, under Gen. Rufus Putnam, from New
England. It had been, the year before, erected into one district,
including the present territories of Michigan, Illinois, and In-
diana.

Until 1795, the settlement of Ohio was retarded by constant
wars with the Indians. But at that time, a general peace with
the different tribes being effected, by Gen. Wayne, under Wash-
ington, the population of the territory rapidly increased by emi-
grations from Europe, and still more from New England.

5. In July, 1804, occurred the death of Gen. Alexan-
der Hamilton, who fell in a duel fought with Aaron Burr,
vice-president of the United States.

Col. Burr had addressed a letter to Gen. Hamilton, in which
he demanded a denial or acknowledgment, on the part of the
latter, of certain offensive expressions, contained in a public pa-
per. Hamilton, declining to give either, was challenged by
Burr. Although averse, from principle, to this mode of settling
personal controversies, in an evil moment, Hamilton, actuated
by a false sense of honor, accepted the challenge, and, on meet*

jefferson's administration. 275

ing his enemy, fell by means of his first fire. Among his personal
and political friends, his death caused a deep sensation. The
people of New York city, in which he resided, paid him extra-
ordinary honors. Few men have shone with greater brilliancy
in our country ; few have been gifted with a more powerful elo-
quence, or have been more justly respected for their talents 01
attainments.

6. Mr. Jefferson's first term of office ending this year,
a new election took place, at which he was re-chosen
oresident, and on the 4th of March again took the oath
of office. George Clinton, of New York, was elected
vice-president.

7. During the year which commenced the second of
Mr. Jefferson's presidency, a war, which had been con
tinued for several years between the United States and
Tripoli, was concluded, and a treaty of peace negotiated
by Col. Lear, between the two countries, by which the
Tripolitan and American prisoners were exchanged,
and the sum of sixty thousand dollars given to the
pacha.

The history of this war deserves a place in these pages. The
commerce of the United States had been long annoyed by the
Tripolitan cruisers — many merchantmen had been taken, and
their crews imprisoned and cruelly treated.

As early as 1803, a squadron under Com. Preble had been sent
to the Mediterranean, to protect the American commerce, and to
bring the corsairs to submission. During the same year, Capt.
Bainbridge, in the Philadelphia, joined Com. Preble, and, in
chasing a cruiser into the harbor of Tripoli, grounded his vessel ;
and he and his crew were taken prisoners.

Shortly after the surrender of the Philadelphia, the Tripolitans
got her afloat, and warped her into the outward harbor. In this
situation, Lieutenant, afterwards Commodore Decatur, conceived
the bold plan of attempting to set her on fire. He had the day
before captured a small xebec, laden with fruit and oil, which
was bound to Tripoli ; and having on board the Enterprise, which
he commanded, an old pilot, who understood the Tripolitan lan-
guage, he suggested his plan to Commodore Preble, who ap-
proved of it. He would accept of only twenty men, although a
much greater number volunteered, and but one officer, Mr. Mor-
ris, a midshipman. With these men, concealed in the bottom of
the xebec, on the approach of night, he sailed for the Philadel-
phia, taking with him the old pilot. On approaching the frigate

27(5 period ix.— 1801 to 1S09.

the xebec was hailed, when the pilot answered, that he had lost
his cable and anchor, and begged premission to make last to the
frigate until the morning. This the crew refused, but said he
might make fast to their stern hawser, until they sent a boat to
the admiral for leave.

As the boat put off for the shore, Lieut. Decatur, with his brave
companions, leaped on board the frigate, and in a few minutes
swept the deck of every Tripolitan. Of fifty, not one reached
the shore. The frigate was now set on fire, and while, the flames
rose, to spread consternation among the Tripolitans, they served
to lighten the heroic Decatur and his band back in safety to the
American squadron. Of the party, not one was killed, and but
one wounded. This was a seaman who saved the life of his
commander. In the first desperate struggle on board the Phila-
delphia, Decatur was disarmed, and fell. A sabre was already
lifted to strike the fatal blow, when this seaman, observing the
perilous situation of his officer, reached forward and received the
blow of the sabre on his arm.

In consequence of the burning of the Philadelphia, the suffer-
ings ot^ Commodore Bainbridge and his crew, as well as those of
other Americans in captivity at Tripoli, were greatly increased.
The accounts of their sufferings, transmitted to the United States,
excited the sympathy of all classes, and a general cry for oxer
tions to effect their deliverance was heard from all parts of the
Union.

It happened, that some time before this, the then reigning
bashaw of Tripoli. Jussuf, third son of the late bashaw, had mur-
dered his father and eldest brother, and proposed to murder the
second, in order to possess himself of the throne. But the latter,
Hamet Caramelli, made his escape, and Jussuf, without farther
opposition, usurped the government.

Hamet took refuge in Egypt, where he was kindly treated by
the beys. Here he was, on the arrival of an accredited agent of
the United States. Gen. Eaton, who revived his almost expiring
hopes of regaining his rightful kingdom.

Gen. Eaton had been consul for the United States up the
Mediterranean, and was returning home when he heard of the
situation of Hamet. Conceiving a plan of liberating the Ameri-
cans in captivity at Tripoli, by means of the assistance of Hamet,
and, at the same time, of restoring this exile to his throne, he
advvsed with Hamet. who readily listened to the project, and
gave his co-operation.

A convention was accordingly entered into between Gen.
Eaton, on the part of the United States, and Hamet, by which
the latter stipulated much in favor of the Americans, and was
promised to be restored, to his throne.

With a small force, consisting of seamen from the American
squadron, the followers of Hamet. and some Egyptian troops,

jeffersox's administration. 2 .

Gen. Eaton and Harnet, with incredible toil and suffer!.
the desert of Barea, and took possession efDerne, the capil
a large province belonging to the kingdom of Trijxdi.

of Eaton were now so much increased, and the can
Harnet had become so popular, that the p. ing of

his being able to reduce the city of Tripoli, and of effecth. \
liberation of the captives without ransom.

The success of Eaton struck the usur S with terror.

Trembling for his fate in this juncture, he proposed to Mr. .
the consul-general of America, then in the Mediterranean, to
enter into negotiation. Mr. Lear, who WBM authorized to
into negotiation^ accepted the proposal, although he k:.
success of Eaton and Harnet, and a treaty ensued. Eaton and
Harnet were consequently arrested in the prosecution of their
purpose, and the unfortunate exile failed of his promis-
tion to the throne.

In 1805, Harriet visited the United States, with the expeel
of obtaining some remuneration for his sendees from America,
and for her failure in fulfilling her stipulations to him
Eaton. A proposition to this effect was brought befor-
but, after much discussion, was rejected.

8. During this year, i8055 Michigan became a dis-
tinct territorial government of the United StaJ

The Michigan territory, when first discovered by the wlrite3,
was inhabited by the Harons, a tribe of Indiai
were converted to Christianity by the

About the year 1670, the Huron ted and dis;

by the Six Nations, about which tin. h took p

Bion of the territory, and built a fort at Detroit, and another at
Michiilirnackinac. Tittle, however, was done
to settle the country.

At the peace of 1763, the territory was ceded by the French
to Great .Britain, and by the latter to the United States in
Until 17*7, it remained in the sam :' nature.

rfl merit or any considerable settlements: but
the several states which had claims upon it, ceded them to the
United States, and a tf-ritorial government v
all the territory north- v. %st of the Ohio.

This territory remained under or. rnment until I

when the present state of Ohio was detached, and mad-
government. This w» = followed, in I a further
of Indiana and Iltinuie: and, in 1805, Michigan
tached, and was erected into a distinct territorial gc
Gen. Hull was appointed by Mr. Jefferson the first governor.

9. In the autumn of 1806, a project was detected, at
the head of which was Col. Burr, for revolutionizing

278 period ix.— 1801 to 1809.

the territoi ' west of the Alleganies, and of establishing
an independent empire there, of which New Orleans
was to be the capital, and himself the chief. Towards
the accomplishment of this scheme, which, it afterwards
appeared, had been some time in contemplation, the
skilful cunning and intrigue of Col. Burr were directed.
Happily, however, government, being apprized of his
designs, arrested him, while as yet he had few adherents,
and before his standard was raised. He was brought to
trial at Richmond, on a charge of treason committed
within the district of Virginia ; but, no overt act being
proved against him in that state, he was released.

In addition to this project, Col. Burr had formed another, which,
in case of failure in the first, might be carried on independently
of it : — this was an attack on Mexico, and the establishment of
an empire there. A third object was provided, merely ostensible,
to wit, the settlement of the pretended purchase of a tract of
country on the Washita, claimed by a Baron Bastrop. This was
to serve as a pretext for all his preparations, an allurement for
such followers as really wished to acquire settlements in that
country, and a cover under which to retreat, in the event of a
final discomfiture of both branches of his real designs.

He found at once that the attachment of the western country
to the present Union was not to be shaken ; that its dissolution
could not be effected with the consent of the inhabitants ; and
that his resources were inadequate, as yet, to effect it by force
He determined, therefore, to seize New Orleans, plunder the
bank there, possess himself of the military and naval stores, and
proceed on his expedition to Mexico.

He collected, therefore, from all quarters, where himself or his
agents possessed influence, all the ardent, restless, desperate,
disaffected persons, who were for an enterprise analogous to their
characters. He also seduced good, well-meaning citizens, some
by assurances that he possessed the confidence of the govern-
ment, and was acting under its secret patronage ; and others by
offers of land in Bastrop's claim in the Washita.

10. 1806. To understand the subsequent political
history of the United States, and those measures of gov-
ernment, which were taken in relation to foreign powers,
it is necessary to glance at the state of the European
nations, at this period — particularly that of England and
France. These two countries were now at war willi

JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 279

each other, and in their controversies had involved most
of the continental powers. Towards the belligerents,
America was endeavoring to maintain a neutrality, and
peaceably to continue a commerce with them. It was
hardly to be expected, however, that jealousies would not
arise, between the contending powers, in relation to the
conduct of America, and that events would not occur,'
calculated to injure her commerce, and disturb her peace.
In addition to these circumstances, a controversy had
long existed, and continued to exist, between the United
States and Great Britain, in respect to the right of
searching neutral ships and impressing seamen. Great
Britain claimed it as among her prerogatives to take
her native born subjects, wherever found, for her navy,
and of searching American vessels for that purpose.
As yet, no adjustment of this controversy had been ef-
fected. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of the
American government, the officers of the British navy
not unfrequently seized native born British subjects, who
had voluntarily enlisted on board our vessels. They also
impressed into the British service some thousands of
American seamen.

11. May 16th, 180G, the British government issued
an order in council, declaring the ports and rivers from
the Elbe, a river in Germany, to Brest, a town of France,
to be in a state of blockade. By this order, American
vessels, trading to these and intervening ports, were lia-
ble to seizure and condemnation.

12. In the ensuing November, 1806, Bonaparte issued

his celebrated decree at Berlin, called the "Berlin decree"

by which all the British islands were declared to be in

a state of blockade, and all intercourse with them was

prohibited. This decree violated the treaty between the

United States and France, and the law of nations.

The following are the principal articles of that decree, which
related to the obstruction of American commerce : —

1. The British islands are in a state of blockade.

2. All commerce and correspondence with them is prohibited.

3. No vessel coming directly from England, or her colonies,

280 period ix.— 1801 to 1809.

or having been there since the publication of this decree, shall
be admitted into any port.

13. This decree of Bonaparte, at Berlin, was in part
retaliated by the British government, in an order of
council, issued January 7th, 1S07, by which all coasting
trade with France was prohibited.

" Whereas the French government has issued certain orders,
which purport to prohibit the commerce of all neutral nations
with his majesty's dominions," &c. — " his majesty is pleased to
order, that no vessels shall be permitted to trade from one port to
another, both which ports shall belong to, or be in possession of,
France or her allies, or shall be so far under their control as that
British vessels may not freely trade thereat," &c, on pain of
capture and condemnation.

14. While measures were thus taking by France and
England, whose tendency was to injure American com-
merce, and to involve her in a controversy with both, an
event occurred, which filled the American people with
indicrnation, and called for immediate executive notice.
This was an attack upon the American frigate Chesa-
peake, Commodore Barron, off the capes of Virginia,
by the British frigate Leopard, of fifty guns. The at-
tack was occasioned by the refusal of Commodore Bar-
ron to surrender several seamen, who had deserted from
the British armed ship Melampus, a short time previous,
and had voluntarily enlisted on board the Chesapeake.
After crippling the American frigate, which made no
resistance, the commander of the Leopard took from
her the seamen in question, two of whom had been
proved to be American citizens.

The persons who deserted from the Melampus, then lying in
Hampton roads, were William Ware, Daniel MartiAi. John Stra-
chan, John Little, and Ambrose Watts. Within a month from
their escape from the Melampus, the first three of these desert-
ers offered themselves for enlistment, and were received on
board the Chesapeake, then at Norfolk, Virginia, preparing
for sea.

The British consul at Norfolk, being apprized of this circum-
stance, wrote a letter to the American naval officer, requesting
these men to be returned. With this request the officer refusing

jefferson's administration. 281

tc comply, the British agent lost no time in endeavoring to pro-
cure an order from government for their surrender. In conse-
quence of this application, the secretary of the navy ordered an
examination into the characters and claims of the men in ques-
tion. The required examination resulted in proof that Ware,
Martin, and Strachan, were natives of America. The two former
had protections, or notarial certificates of their being American
citizens. Strachan had no -protection, but asserted that he lost it
previously to his escape. Such being the circumstances of the
men, the government refused to surrender them.

On the 22d of June, the Chesapeake weighed anchor, and
proceeded to sea. She passed the British ships Bellona and
Melampus, lying in Lynnhaven bay, whose appearance was
friendly. There were two other ships that lay off Cape Henry,
one of which, the Leopard, Capt. Humphreys, weighed anchor,
and, in a few hours, came alongside the Chesapeake.

A British otficer immediately came on board, and demanded
the deserters. To this, Capt. Barron replied, that he did not
know of any being there, and that his duty forbade him to allow
of any muster of his crew except by their own officers.

During this interview, Barron noticed some proceedings of a
hostile nature on board the adverse ship, but he could not be per-
suaded that any thing but menace was intended by them. Af-
ter the British officer departed, he gave orders to clear his gun-
deck, and after some time, he directed his men to their quarters,
secretly, and without beat of drum ; still, however, without any
serious apprehensions of an attack.

Before these orders could be executed, the Leopard com-
menced a heavy fire. This fire, unfortunately, was very destruc-
tive. In about thirty minutes, the hull, rigging, and spars of the
Chesapeake, were greatly damaged, three men were killed and
sixteen wounded ; among the latter was the captain himself.
Such was the previous disorder, that, during this time, the ut
most exertions were insufficient to prepare the ship for action,
and the captain thought proper to strike his colors.

The British captain refused to accept the surrender of the
Chesapeake, but took from her crew, Ware, Martin, and Strachan,
the three men formerly demanded as deserters, and a fourth,
John Wilson, claimed as a runaway from a merchant ship.

15. Such was the agitation of the public mind, in
consequence of this outrage committed on the Chesa-
peake, that the president, on the 2d of July, issued his
proclamation, ordering all British armed vessels to leave
the waters of the United States, and forbidding them to
enter, until satisfaction for the attack on the Chesapeake
should be made by the British government. About th«
24*

282 period ix.— 1801 to 1809.

same time, instructions were forwarded to the American
minister in England, Mr. Monroe, to demand reparation
for the unauthorized attack upon the Chesapeake, and, as
an essential part of that reparation, security against future
impressments from American ships. The British min-
ister, Mr. Canning, however, protested against conjoin-
ing the general question concerning the impressment of
persons from neutral merchant ships, with the particular
affray between the Leopard and the Chesapeake.

Mr. Monroe not being authorized to treat these sub-
jects separately, further negotiation between these two
ministers was suspended, and Mr. Rose was appointed,
by the British government, as a special minister to the
United States, empowered to treat concerning the par-
ticular injury complained of, but not to discuss the gen-
eral question of impressing persons from merchant
ships.

16. While such measures were taking in England, in
relation to the affair of the Chesapeake, congress, which
had been summoned by proclamation of the president,
met on the 27th of October.

In his message to congress at this time, the president entered
fully into the state of our relations with Great Britain — informed
them of a treaty which had been negotiated with the British
government, by Messrs. Monroe and Pinckney, but which he had
rejected, principally because it made in sufficient provision on the
subject of impressments — stated the affair of -the attack on the
Chesapeake — his proclamation to British armed vessels to quit, the
waters of the United States — his instructions to the American
minister at London, in relation to reparation expected from the
British government, and his expectation of speedily hearing
from England the result of the measures which had been taken.

17. On the 11th of November were issued, at London,
the celebrated British Orders in Council, retaliatory
upon the French government for the Berlin decree of
November, 1806. By these orders in council, France
and her allies, all nations at war with Great Britain, and
all places from which the British flag is excluded, were
declared to be under the same restrictions in point of

jepferson's administration. 283

trade and navigation, as if the same were in a state of
blockade.

18. Before the arrival of Mr. Rose, congress was sed-
ulously employed in considering the state of the nation,
and in making provision for putting the country in a
posture of defence.

Acts passed, appropriating one million of dollars to be employed
by the president in equipping one hundred thousand of the national
militia ; eight hundred and fifty-two thousand five hundred dollars
for building one hundred and eighty-eight gun-boats ; one million
of dollars for building, repairing, and completing fortifications,
and for raising six thousand six hundred men, infantry, riflemen,
artillery, and dragoons, as an addition to the standing army. On
the 22d of December, an act passed, laying an embargo on all
vessels within the jurisdiction of the United States

19. On the 17th of December, Bonaparte, by way of
retaliating the British orders in council, issued a decree,
called " the Milan decree," declaring every vessel dena-
tionalized, which shall have submitted to a search by a
British ship ; and every vessel a good prize, which shall
sail to or from Great Britain, or any of its colonies, or
countries, occupied by British troops.

20. Mr. Rose arrived in America on the 25th of De-
cember. The American minister was soon after informed
that he, Mr. Rose, was expressly forbidden by his gov-
ernment to make any proposal, touching the great sub-
ject of complaint, so long as the president's proclama-
tion of July 2d, excluding British armed vessels from
the waters of the United States, should be in force.

For a time, the president refused to annul this procla-
mation, till the atonement was not only solemnly of-
fered, but formally accepted ; but, in order to elude this
difficulty, he finally agreed to revoke his proclamation,
on the day of the date of the act, or treaty, by which
reparation should be made for the recent violence. This
concession, however, was built on two conditions : first,
the terms of reparation which the minister was charged
to offer, must be previously made known ; and, sec-
ondly, they must be such as by the president should be
accounted satisfactory.

284 teriod ix.— 1801 to 1809.

But as the British minister declined to offer, or even
to mention, the redress of which he was the bearer, till
the American proclamation was recalled, and the presi-
dent deeming its recall inexpedient, the controversy, for
the present, closed.

The controversy respecting the Chesapeake was finally adjust-
ed in November, 1811, at which time the British minister com-
municated to the secretary of state, that the attack on the Ches-
apeake was unauthorized by his majesty's government; thattha
officer, at that time in command on the American coast, had been
recalled ; that the men taken from the Chesapeake should be re
stored ; and that suitable pecuniary provision should be made for
those who suffered in the attack, and for the families of the sea-
men that fell. To these propositions the president acceded.

21. The difficulties with France and England, regard-
ing commerce, still continuing, and the existing embargo
having failed to coerce these powers, as was anticipated,
into an acknowledgment of our rights, a more complete
stop to our intercourse with them was deemed advisa-
ble by congress. Accordingly, on the 1st of March,
congress interdicted, by law, all trade and intercourse
with France and England.

22. Mr. Jefferson's second term of office expired on
the 3d of March. Having previously declined a re-
election, James Madison was chosen president, and
George Clinton vice-president.

NOTES.

23. Manners. The bitterness of party spirit, which
had now raged in the United States for some years, be*
gan to have a visible effect upon society. It interrupted,
to no small extent, the general harmony, and even re-
strained the intercourse of friends and neighborhoods.
The strife for power also introduced a disposition to in-
trigue ; political cunning became fashionable, and polit-
ical duplicity lost much of its deformity. These things
necessarily affected the state of manners. They with-
drew the finger of derision, which used to point at mean

jefferson's administration. 285

ness of all kinds, and blunted that love of honor, and
manliness of conduct, which existed before. Cunning
began to take the place of wisdom ; professions answered
instead of deeds ; and duplicity stalked forth with the
boldness of integrity.

24. Religion. Powerful revivals of religion per-
vaded the country, during this period, and tended
str jngly to prevent open infidelity, and to check the tide
of pollution, which was invisibly spread over the land.

25. Trade and Commerce. Trade and commerce
made great advances about the year 1803. The Euro-
pean powers being involved in war, and the .United
States remaining neutral, our vessels carried to Europe,
not only the produce of our own country, but also the
produce of other countries. This is usually called the
carrying trade, and was very profitable to the country.

In 1805,6, and 7, our average annual exports amounted to one
hundred and two millions five hundred and sixty-seven thousand
four hundred and fifty-four dollars, of which forty-four millions
eight hundred and sixty-three thousand five hundred and seventeen
dollars, were for domestic produce; and fifty-seven millions seven
hundred and one thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars,
for foreign produce. The annual average of imports during these
three years amounted to about one hundred and forty millions of
dollars ; a large proportion of the articles forming this amount,
were re-exported to the West Indies, South America, and
elsewhere.

After the year 1807, the commercial restrictions laid by France
and England, began to curtail our trade ; and the embargo, im-
posed at the close of the same year by our government, interrupt-
ed it still more essentially.

2G. Agriculture. Agriculture, during a part of this
period, received great encouragement from our foreign
trade. Europe being involved in contentions, the people
had little leisure there to cultivate the soil ; they were
therefore supplied from other countries, and the United
States furnished them with a great amount, and were
thence deriving great profits, when the commercial re-
strictions interrupted the trade.

The first merino sheep were introduced into the country, in
1802, by Robert R. Livingston, and, the same year, a greater

286 period ix.— 1801 to 1809.

number, one hundred, by General Humphreys, then late minis-
ter to Spain. Great attention was paid to the breeding of them,
and they are now numerous in the United States.

27. Arts and Manufactures. Arts and manufac-
tures still progressed.

28. Population. The population of the United
States, at the close of Mr. Jefferson's administration,
was about seven millions.

29. Education. The enlightened views respecting the
importance of general information, entertained before,
continued to prevail. New literary and scientific pub-
lications were commenced ; more enlightened methods
of instruction were adopted ; academies were multiplied ;
colleges founded ; and theological seminaries liberally
endowed.

A theological seminary was founded at Andover, Massachu-
setts, in 1808. The amount which has been contributed for its
permanent use, and which was given by six families, is more
than three hundred thousand dollars. This sum includes the
permanent fund, library, and public buildings. In 1822, the of-
ficers were four professors, and the number of students, one hun-
dred and thirty-two. The library contains about five thousand
volumes. A majority of the students are supported, in whole of
in part, by charity.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD X.

DISTINGUISHED FOR MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION
AND THE LATE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Madi-
son, 1809, to the Inauguration of James Monroe, as
President of the United States, 1817.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1809, Mr. Madison was
inducted into the office of president of the United
States, according to the form prescribed by the consti-
tution.

The condition of the United States, on the accession of Mr.
Madison to the presidency, was in several respects gloomy and
critical. The two great powers of Europe, France and England,
being still at war, were continuing to array against each other
violent commercial edicts, both in contravention of the laws of
nations, and of their own solemn treaties ; and calculated to in-
jure and destroy the commerce of nations desirous of preserving
a neutrality. America was also further suffering under the restric-
tions of commerce, imposed by her own government. Every effort
to secure the due observance of her rights, from the contending
powers, had hitherto failed, and the sad alternative was present-
ing itself to the American people, either to suffer the evils grow-
ing out of foreign and domestic restrictions, or to take up arms,
and risk the consequence of a war with the belligerents.

2. Previously to the adjournment of the last congress,
under Mr. Jefferson, an act passed, as already noticed,
1st of March, repealing tl^e then existing embargo, and
interdicting commercial intercourse witli France and

288 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

Great Britain. If either of these powers, however, should
revoke its hostile edicts, the president was authorized to
renew the intercourse, in regard to the nation so re-
voking.

In April, Mr. Erskine, the British minister at Wash-
ington, engaged, on the part of his government, that the
orders in council, so far as they affected the United
States, should be withdrawn on the 10th of June ; and
the president immediately issued the proclamation pre-
scribed by law.

This event produced the highest satisfaction through-
out the country ; but was speedily followed by a disap-
pointment as great. The British government denied the
authority of Mr. Erskine to enter into any such stipula-
tions, and refused its ratification. On learning this re-
fusal, the president issued his proclamation, August 10th,
renewing the non-intercourse with Great Britain.

3. Early in September, Mr. Jackson arriving at Wash-
ington, as successor of Mr. Erskine, a correspondence
was opened between this minister and the secretary of
state, which, after continuing several weeks, was sud-
denly closed by the president, on account of an alleged
insult on the part of Mr. Jackson.

4. 1810. On the 23d of March, Bonaparte issued a
decree, usually called the " Rambouillet decree," de-
signed to retaliate the act of congress, passed March 1st,
1809, which forbade French vessels entering the ports
of the United States. By the above decree, all Ameri-
can vessels and cargoes, arriving in any of the ports of
France, or of countries occupied by French troops, were
ordered to be seized and condemned.

5. On the 1st of May, congress passed an act, ex-
cluding British and French armed vessels from the wa-
ters of the United States ; but, at the same time, pro-
viding, that, in case either of the above nations should
modify its edicts before the 3d of March, 1811, so that
they should cease to violate neutral commerce, of which
fact the president was to give notice by proclamation,

madison's administration. '289

and the other nation should not, within three months
after, pursue a similar step, commercial intercourse with
the former might be renewed, but not with the latter.

6. In consequence of this act of the American gov-
ernment, the French minister, the Duke of Cadore, at
Paris, informed the American minister, Mr. Armstrong,
then in France, that the Berlin and Milan decrees were
revoked, and that, from and after the 1st of November,
they would cease to have effect. But, at the same time,
it was subjoined, that it was " understood, that, in conse-
quence of this declaration, the English shall revoke their
orders in council," &c. About the same time, it was
announced, that the Rambouillejt decree had also been
rescinded.

Although the condition subjoined to the Duke of Ca-
dore's declaration rendered it doubtful whether the Ber-
lin and Milan decrees would in fact cease to take effect
after the 1st of November, the president issued his proc-
lamation on the 2d of that month, declaring that those
decrees were revoked, and that intercourse between the
United States and France might be renewed.

7. While the affairs of America, in relation to the
belligerents, were in this posture, an unhappy engage-
ment took place, May, 1811, between the American
frigate President, commanded by Captain Rodgers, and
a British sloop-of-war, the Little Belt, commanded by
Captain Bingham. The attack was commenced by the
latter vessel, without provocation, and, in the rencontre,
she suffered greatly in her men and rigging.

A court of inquiry was ordered on the conduct of Capt. Rod-
gers, which decided that it had been satisfactorily proved to the
court, that Capt. Rodgers hailed the Little Belt first — that his
hail was not satisfactorily answered — that the Little Belt fired
the first gun — and that it was without previous provocation, oi
justifiable cause, &c. &c.

8. Congress was assembled by proclamation on the
5th of November. In his message, at the opening of

he session, the president indicated the expectation of

290 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

hostilities with Great Britain at no distant period, since
her orders in council, instead of being withdrawn, were,
when least to have been expected, put into more rigor-
ous execution.

9. In December, the president communicated to con-
gress an official account of the battle of " Tippecanoe"—
near a branch of the Wabash — fought November 7th,
between an army under Gen. Harrison, governor of the
Indiana Territory, and a large body of Indians, in which
the latter were defeated.

The attack was commenced by the Indians, about four o'clock
in the morning, while the army of Harrison were in a measuie
unprepared. But, notwithstanding this disadvantage, after a
hard-fought action, the Indians were repulsed with a loss of near
ly seventy killed, and upwards of a hundred wounded. The loss
of the Americans was severe, being, according to official return,
one hundred and eighty-eight in killed and wounded.

10. During the following year, 1812, Louisiana was
admitted into the Union as a sovereign state.

Until the year 1811, Louisiana comprehended that vast tract of
country which was ceded to the United States by France, in
1803. At that time, however, the Territory of Orleans, which
was then a distinct territorial government, assumed the name of
Louisiana, and was admitted, the following year, as a state, into
the Union; since which time, the remaining portion of original
Louisiana has received distinct denominations.

Louisiana was first discovered in 1541, by Ferdinand de Soto.
In 1683, Monsieur de la Salle, an enterprising Frenchman, sail-
ed up the Mississippi a considerable distance, and named the
country Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV. A French settle-
ment was begun in 1699, by M. d'Ibberville, in Lower Louisiana,
near the mouth of the river Perdido. The progress of the colony
was slow. In 1712, although twenty-five hundred emigrants had
arrived, only four hundred whites and twenty negroes were alive

About this time, the French government made a grant of the
country to M. de Crozat for a term of ten years ; but after five
years, he relinquished hi.s patent to the Mississippi company. In
the same year, 1717, the ciw of Orleans was founded.

By the treaty of 1763, a!l Louisiana east of the Mississippi was
ceded to England, together with Mobile, and all the possessions
of France in that quarter. About the same time, the possessions
of France west of the Mississippi were secretly ceded to Spain.
After the cession to Great Britain, that part of the territory which

madison's administration. 29 .

jay west of the Mississippi received the name of West Florida.
On the breaking out of the revolutionary war, Spain, after con-
siderable hesitation, took part with the United States, incited,
probably, by the hope of regaining her possessions east of the
Mississippi. In 1779, Galvoy, the governor of Louisiana, took
possession of Baton Rouge ; and the other settlements of the
English in Florida surrendered successively. By the treaty of
1783, the Mississippi was made the western boundary of the Uni-
ted States from its source to the 31st degree of latitude, and fol-
lowing this line to the St. Mary's. By a treaty of the same date,
the Floridas were ceded to Spain without any specific boundaries.

This omission led to a controversy between the United States
and Spain, which nearly terminated in hostilities. By a treaty
with Spam, however, in 1795, boundary lines were amicably set-
tled, and New Orleans was granted to American citizens as a
place of deposit for their effects for three years and longer, un-
less some other place of equal importance should be assigned.
No other place being assigned within that time, New Orleans
continued to be used as before.

In 1800, a secret treaty was signed at Paris, by the plenipo-
tentiaries of France and Spain, by which Louisiana was guar-
antied to France, and, in 1801, the cession was actually made.
At the same time, the Spanish intendant of Louisiana was in-
structed to make arrangements to deliver the country to the
French commissioners. In violation of the treaty of Spain with
the United States, the intendant, by his proclamation of October,
1802, forbade American citizens vmy longer to deposit merchan-
dize in the port of New Orleans. Upon receiving intelligence
of this prohibition, great sensibility prevailed in congress, and a
proposition was made to occupy the place by force ; but, after an
animated discussion, the project was relinquished, and negotia-
tions with France were commenced, by Mr. Jefferson, for the
purchase of the whole country of Louisiana, which ended in an
agreement to that effect, signed at Paris, April 30th, 1803, by
which the United States were to pay to France fifteen millions
of dollars. Early in December, 1803, the commissioners of Spain
delivered possession to France ; and on the 20th of the same
month, the authorities of France duly transferred the country to
the United States. Congress had provided for this event, and
under their act, William C. C. Claiborne was appointed governor.
By an act of March, 1804, that part of the ceded country which
lay south of the parallel of thirty-three degrees was separated
from the rest, and called the Territory of Orleans. In 1811', this
district was erected into a state, and, in 1812, was admitted into
the Union by the name of Louisiana.

11. On the 3d of April, 1812, congress passed an act
laying an embargo, for ninety days, on all vessels within

292 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

the jurisdiction of the United States, agreeably to a
recommendation of the president. This measure, it was
understood, was preparatory to a war with Great Britain,
which the executive would soon urge upon congress to
declare.

12. On the 4th of June, 1812, a bill declaring war
against Great Britain passed the house of representa-
tives, by a majority of seventy-nine to forty-nine. After
a discussion of this bill in the senate till the 17th, it pass-
ed that body also, by a majority of nineteen to thirteen,
and, the succeeding day, ] 8th,* received the signature of
the president.

The principal grounds of war, set forth in a message of the
president to congress, June 1st, and further explained by the
committee on foreign relations, in their report on the subject of
the message, were, summarily — The impressment of American
seamen by the British ; the blockade of her enemy's ports, sup-
ported by no adequate force, in consequence of which, the Ameri-
can commerce had been plundered in every sea, and the great
staples of the country cut off from their legitimate markets ; and
the British orders in council.

Against the declaration of war, the representatives belonging
to the federal party presented a solemn protest, which was written
with distinguished ability, and which denied the war to be " neces-
sary, or required by any moral duty, or political expediency."

*The following are the orders in council, French decrees, and the conse-
quent acts of the American government, with their respective dates, present-
ed in one view : —

1806, May 16th, British blockade from the Elbe to Brest.
" Nov. 21st, Berlin decree.

1807, Jan. 6th, British order in council, prohibiting the coasting trade.
" Nov. 11th, The celebrated British orders in council.

" Dec. 17th, Milan decree.
" Dec. 22d, American embargo.

1809, March 1st, Non-intercourse with Great Britain and France, establish-

ed by congress.
" April 10th, Mr. Erskine's negotiation, which opened the trade with

England.
" June 19th, Non-intercourse with Great Britain.

1810, March 18th, Rambouillet decree. '

" May 1st, Act of congress conditionally opening the trade with Eng-
land and France.

** Nov. 2d, President's proclamation, declaring the French decrees to
be rescinded.
1812, April 4th, American embargo.

" June 18th, Declaration of war by the United States against Great
Britain. •

madison's administration. 293

But not in congress only did this difference of views exist re-
specting the war; but it extended throughout the country, the
friends of the administration universally commending, and its
opposers as extensively censuring and condemning the measure.
By the former, the war was strenuously urged to be unavoidable
and just ; by the latter, with equal decision, it was pronounced to
be impolitic, unnecessary, and immoral.

13. The military establishments of the United States,
upon the declaration of war, were extremely defective.
Acts of congress permitted the enlistment of twenty-five
thousand men ; but few enlisted. The president was
authorized to raise fifty thousand volunteers, and to call
out one hundred thousand militia, for the purpose of de-
fending the sea-coast and the frontiers. But the want
of proper officers was now felt, as the ablest revolutiona-
ry heroes had paid the debt of nature. Such was the
situation of things at the commencement of hostilities.

14. On the 16th of August, Gen. Hull, governor of
Michigan, who had been sent, at the head of about two
thousand five hundred men, to Detroit, with a view of
putting an end to Indian hostilities in that country, sur-
rendered his army to the British Gen. Brock, without a
battle, and with it the fort of Detroit, together with all
other forts and garrisons of the United States, within the
district under his command.

In his official despatch, Gen. Hull labored to free his conduct
from censure, by bringing "into view the inferiority of his force,
compared with that of the enemy — his not exceeding eight hun-
dred effective men — that of the enemy amounting to thirteen
hundred, of whom seven hundred were Indians; — and also the
dangers which threatened him from numerous western tribes of
Indians, who were swarming in the neighboring woods, and who
were ready, in case of his defeat, to rush to the indiscriminate
slaughter of the Americans.

Whether the views which induced this surrender of Hull were
m reality justly founded or not, the public mind was altogether
unprepared for an occurrence so disastrous and mortifying.

Not long after, Gen. Hull was exchanged for thirty British
prisoners. Neither the government nor the people were satisfied
with his excuses. The affair was solemnly investigated by a
court-martial. He was charged with treason, cowardice, and un-
officer-like conduct. On the first charge, the court declined giv
25*

294 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

jng an opinion ; on the two last, he was sentenced to death; but
was recommended to mercy, in consequence of his revolutionary
services, and his advanced age. The sentence was remitted by
the president; but his name was ordered to be struck from the
rolls of the army.

15. On the 19th of August, three days after the un-
fortunate surrender of Detroit, that series of splendid
naval achievements, for which this war was distinguish-
ed, was commenced by Capt. Isaac Hull, of the United
States' frigate Constitution, who captured the British
frigate Guerriere, commanded by Capt. Dacres.

The American frigate was superior in force only by a few guns,
but the difference bore no comparison to the disparity of the con-
flict. The loss of the Constitution was^even killed, and seven
wounded, while that on board the Guerriere was fifteen killed,
and sixty-three wounded : among the latter was Capt. Dacres.
The Constitution sustained so little injury, that she was ready for
action the succeeding day ; but the British frigate was so much
damaged, that she was set on fire and burnt.

16. On the 13th of August, another naval victory was
achieved — the United States' frigate Essex, Capt. Porter,
falling in with and capturing the British sloop-of-war
Alert, after an action of only eight minutes.

This engagement took place off the Grand Bank of Newfound-
land. A single broadside from the American frigate so complete-
ly riddled the sloop, that, on striking her colors, although sbe had
but three men wounded, she had seven feet of water in her hold.
The frigate suffered not the slightest injury.

17. Upon the declaration of war, the attention of the
American commander-in-chief, Gen. Dearborn, was
turned towards the invasion of Canada, for which eigrn
or ten thousand men, and considerable military stores,
were collected, at different points along the Canada line.
Skilful officers of the navy were also despatched, for the
purpose of arming vessels on Lakes Erie, Ontario, and
Champlain, if possible to gain the ascendency there, and
to aid the operations of the American forces.

The American troops were distributed into three di-
visions— one under Gen. Harrison, called the North'
western army ; a second under Gen. Stephen Van

madison's administration. 295

Rensselaer, at Lewistown, called the army of the Cen-
tre; and a third under the commander-in-chief, Gen.
Dearborn, in the neighborhood of Plattsburg and Green-
bush, called the army of the North.

18. Early on the morning of the 13th of October,
1812, a detachment of about one thousand men, from
the army of the centre, crossed the river Niagara, and
attacked the British on Queenstown heights. This de-
tachment, under the command of Col. Solomon Van
Rensselaer, succeeded in dislodging the enemy ; but,
not being reinforced by the militia from the American,
side, as was expected, they were ultimately repulsed.,
and were obliged to surrender. The British general i
Brock, was killed during the engagement.

The forces designated to storm the heights, were divided into
two columns; one of three hundred militia, under Col. Van
Rensselaer ; the other of three hundred regulars, under CoL
Christie. These were to be followed by Col. Fenwick's artillery
and afterwards the residue of the troops.

Scarcely had Col. Van Rensselaer effected a landing, before he
was severely wounded ; upon which the troops, now under com-
mand of Capt. Wool, advanced to storm the fort. Of this they
gained possession ; but, at the moment of success, Gen. Brock
arrived from Fort George, with a reinforcement of six hundred
men. These were gallantly driven back by the Americans. In
attempting to rally them, the heroic Brock was killed.

Gen. Van Rensselaer, who had previously crossed over, now
returned to hasten the embarkation of the " tardy " militia. But
what was his chagrin, to hear more than twelve hundred men, who
a little before were panting for the battle, refuse to embark ! He
urged, entreated, commanded — but all in vain. Meanwhile, the
enemy being reinforced, a desperate conflict ensued, and in the
end the British were completely victorious. Had, however, but
a small part of the " idle men " passed over at the critical mo-
ment, when urged by their brave commander, revolutionary his-
tory can tell of few nobler achievements than this would haye
been.

19. On the 17th of October, another naval victory
was achieved over an enemy decidedly superior in force,
and under circumstances the most favorable to him.
This was the capture of the brig Frolic, of twenty-twa
guns, by the sloop-of-war Wasp.

29(> period x.— 1809 to 1817.

Capt. Jones had returned from France two weeks after the
declaration of war, and, on the 13th of October, again put to sea.
On the 17th, he fell in with six merchant ships, under convoy of
a brig, and two ships, armed with sixteen guns each. The brig,
which proved to be the Frolic, Capt. Whinyates, dropped behind,
while the others made sail. At half past eleven, the action be-
gan by the enemy's cannon and musketry. In five minutes, the
main-top-mast was shot away, and, falling down with the main-
top-sail yard across the larboard fore and fore-top-sail, rendered
her head yards unmanageable, during the rest of the action. In
two minutes more, her gaff and mizzen top-gallant-mast were shot
away. The sea being exceedingly rough, the muzzles of the
Wasp's guns were sometimes under water.

The English fired as their vessel rose, so that their shot was
either thrown away, or touched only the rigging of the Ameri-
cans ; the Wasp, on the contrary, fired as she sunk, and every
time struck the hull of her antagonist. The fire of the Frolic
was soon slackened, and Capt. Jones determined to board her.
As the crew leaped on board the enemy's vessel, their surprise
can scarcely be imagined, as they found no person on deck, ex-
cept three officers and the seaman at the wheel. The deck was
slippery with blood, and presented a scene of havoc and ruin.
The officers now threw down their swords in submission, and
Lieut. Biddle, of the Wasp, leaped into the rigging, to haul down
the colors, which were still flying. Thus, in forty-three minutes,
ended one of the most bloody conflicts recorded in naval history.
The loss on board the Frolic was thirty killed and fifty wound-
ed ; on board the Wasp five were killed and five slightly wound-
ed. The Wasp and Frolic were both captured the same day, by
a British seventy-four, the Poictiers, Capt. Beresford.

20. The above splendid achievement of Capt. Jones
was followed, on the 25th of October, hy another not
much less splendid and decisive, by Commodore Deca-
tur, of the frigate United States, of forty-four guns, who
captured the Macedonian off the Western Isles, a frigate
of the largest class, mounting forty-nine guns, and man-
ned with three hundred men.

In this action, which continued an hour and a half, the Mace-
donian lost thirty-six killed, and sixty-eight wounded : on board
the United States, seven only were killed, and five wounded.
The British frigate lost her main-mast, main-top-mast, and main
yard, and was injured in her hull. The United States suffered so
little, that a return to port was unnecessary.

An act< of generosity and benevolence, on the part of our brave
lars of this victorious frigate, deserves to be honorably recorded

madison's administration.

The carpenter, who was unfortunately killed in the conflict with
the Macedonian, had left three small children to the care of a
worthless mother. When the circumstance became known to
the brave seamen, they instantly made a contribution among
themselves, to the amount of eight hundred dollars, and placed it
in safe#hands,to be appropriated to the education and maintenance
of the unhappy orphans.

21. December 29th, a second naval victory was
achieved by the Constitution, at this time commanded
by Commodore Bainbridge, over the Java, a British
frigate of thirty-eight guns, but carrying forty-nine, with
four hundred men, commanded by Capt. Lambert, who
was mortally wounded.

This action was fought off St. Salvador, and continued nearly
two hours, when the Java struck, having lost sixty killed and
one hundred and twenty wounded. The Constitution had nine
men killed and twenty-five wounded. On the 1st of January,
the commander, finding his prize incapable of being brought in,
was obliged to burn her.

22. Thus ended the year 1812. With the exception
of the naval victories already mentioned, and some others
of the same kind, equally honorable to America, nothing
important was achieved. Neither of the armies destined
for the invasion of Canada had obtained any decisive
advantage, or were in possession of any post in that ter-
ritory. Further preparations, however, were making for
its conquest. Naval armaments were collecting on the
lakes, and the soldiers, in their winter-quarters, were
looking forward to " battles fought and victories won."

23. The military operations of the campaign of 1813
were considerably diversified, extending along the whole
northern frontier of the United States. The location of
the several divisions of the American forces was as fol-
lows : — The army of the west, under Gen. Harrison, was
placed near the head of Lake Erie ; the army of the
centre, under Gen. Dearborn, between the Lakes Onta-
rio and Erie ; and the army of the north, under Gen.
Hampton, on the shores of Lake Champlain. The
British forces in Canada were under the general super-
intendence of Sir George Provost, under whom Colonels

PERIOD X. 1S09 TO 181'

tor ami Vincent had in charge the defence of the
I pper Provinces ; while the care of the Lower Provinces
was committed to Gen. SheafFe.

:24. The head-quarters of Gen. Harrison, on the com-
mencement oi' winter, wine at Franklinton, in Ohio.
The plan of this general had for its object to concentrate
a considerable force at the Rapids, whence he designed
to make an attack upon Detroit, which was still in the
possession of the British. In the mean while, Gen.
Winchester continued at Fort Defiance, with about eight
hundred men, chiefly from the most respectable families
in Kentucky. Early in January, intimations were re-
ceived from the inhabitants of the village of Frenchtown,
which is situated on the river Raisin, twenty-six miles
from Detroit, that a large body of British and Indians
were about to concentrate at that place. Exposed as
they must be from the presence of a ferocious enemy,
they sought protection from the American general. Con-
trary to the general plan of the commander-in-chief,
Winchester resolved to send a force to their relief, and
accordingly detached a body of men, with orders to wait
at Presque [sle, until joined by the main body.

On reaching the latter place, it was ascertained that
a party of British and Indians had already taken pos-
session of Frenchtown. The resolution was immediate-
ly taken to attack them, without waiting for the arrival
of Winchester. In this attack the Americans were suc-
cessful, and, having driven the enemy from the place,
they encamped on the spot, where they remained until
the twentieth, when they were joined by Gen. Winches-
ter. The American force now exceeded 750 men.
Here, on the morning of January 22d, the Americans
were suddenly attacked by a combined force of British
and Indians, under Gen. Proctor. Unfortunately, the
Americans were signally routed — many of them were
killed, and not far from five hundred were taken prison-
ers, among whom was Gen. Winchester. After the sur-
ender, nearly all the American prisoners were inhumanly

madison's administration. 299

butchered by the savages, although Proctor had pledged
his honor, that ih<;ir lives and private property should

be secure.

Scarcely had the Americans surrendered, than, contrary I
press stipulation*, the swords of the officers were taken from them,
and many of them were stripped almost naked, and robbed. The

dead also were stripped and scalped, while, the tomahawk put
an end at once to such of the wounded as were unable to
The prisoners wlio now remained, with but f<-,w exceptions, in-
stead of being guarded by British soldiers, were delivered to the
charge of the Indians, to be conducted in the rear of the uniiy
to Maiden. J>ut few of them, however, ever reached the British
garrison, being either inhumanly murdered by the Indians at
the time, or reserved to he roasted at the stake, or to be f I
ed at an exorbitant charge.

By this bloody tragedy, all Kentucky, observes an historian,*
was literally in mourning; for the soldiers thus massacred, tor-
tured, burnt, or denied the common rites of sepulture, were of the
most respectable families of the stale ; many of them young
men of fortune and property, with numerous friends ana rela-
tives. The remains of these brave youth lay on the ground, beat
by the storms of heaven, and exposed to the beasts of the I
until the ensuing autumn, when their friends and relation
tured to gather up their bleaching bone;;, and consigned them to
the tomb. .

Historians do not agree as to trie number of Am* i<
Dr. Holmes states the number at 1100. The force o
consisted, according to this author, of 300 Bliti b
GOO Indians.

2-j. On the 23d of January, the day following the
memorable action of Frenchtown, an engagement took
place between the Hornet, Capt. James Lawrence, and

the British sloop-of-war Peacock, Capt. William Peake,
off South America. This action lasted but (if!
utes, when the Peacock struck.

On surrendering, a signal of disfo rered on board

th>; Peacock. She had been so much damaged, thai

she had six feet of water in her hold, and I

were immediately despatched for the wounded, and <■■

ure taken, which was practicable, to keep her afloat until the

crew could be removed. Her gun /."•:<: thl

shot-holes were plugged, and a part of the \\<aw:, ,

* Braekenridge.

BOO period x.— 1809 to 1817.

imminent hazard of their lives, labored incessantly to rescue the
vanquished. The utmost efforts of these generous men were,
however, vain ; the conquered vessel sunk in the midst of them,
carrying down nine of her own crew and three of the Americans.
With a generosity becoming them, the crew of the Hornet divid-
ed their clothing with the prisoners, who were left destitute by
the sinking ship. In the action, the Hornet received but a slight
injury. The killed and wounded, on board the Peacock, were
supposed to exceed fifty.

26. On the 4th of March, 1813, Mr. Madison entered
upon his second term of office, as president of the United
States, having been re-elected by a considerable majori-
ty otfer De Witt Clinton, of New York, who was sup-
ported by the federal electors. George Clinton was
elected vice-president : he died, however, soon after,
and Elbridge Gerry succeeded him.

27. It having been communicated to the American
government, that the emperor of Russia was desirous of
seeing an end put to the hostilities between Great Britain
and America, and had offered to mediate between
the two countries, Messrs. Albert Gallatin, James A.
Bayard, and John Quincy Adams, were, early in the
spring, 1813, appointed commissioners to Russia, to
meet such commissioners as should be sent by the Brit-
ish court, and were empowered to negotiate a treaty of
peace and commerce with Great Britain.

28. About the middle of April, Gen. Pike, by order
of Gen. Dearborn, embarked, with 1700 men, on board
a flotilla, under command of Commodore Chauncey,
from Sacket's Harbor, for the purpose of attacking York,
the capital of Upper Canada, the great depository of
British military stores, whence the western posts were
supplied. On the 27th, an attack was successfully made,
and York fell into the hands of the Americans, with all
its stores.

The command of the troops, one thousand seven hundred, de-
tached for this purpose, was given to Gen. Pike, at his own re •
quest. On the 25th, the fleet, under Commodore Chaunoey,
moved down the lake, with the troops, and, on the 27th, ar-
rived at the [dace of debarkation, about two miles westward

madison's administration. 301

from York, and one and a half from the enemy's works. The
British, consisting of about seven hundred and fifty regulars
and five hundred Indians, under General Sheaffe, attempted to
oppose the landing, but were thrown into disorder, and fled to
their garrison.

General Pike, having formed his men, proceeded towards the
enemy's fortifications. On their near approach to the barracks,
about sixty rods from the garrison, an explosion of a magazine
took place, previously prepared for the purpose, which killed
about one hundred of the Americans, among whom was the gal-
lant Pike.

Pike lived to direct his troops, for a moment thrown into dis-
>rder, " to move on." This they now did under Col. Pearce j
and, proceeding towards the town, took possession of th# bar-
racks. On approaching it, they were met by the officers of the
Canada militia, with offers of capitulation. At four o'clock, the
-troops entered the town.

The loss of the British, in killed, wounded, and prisoners,
amounted to seven hundred and fifty ; the Americans lost, in
killed and wounded, about three hundred.

29. The news of the unfortunate occurrence at French-
town (Sec. 24.) reached Gen. Harrison, while on his
march with reinforcements to Gen. Winchester. Find-
ing a further advance of no importance, he took post
at the Rapids, where he constructed a fort, which, in
honor of the governor of Ohio, he named Fort Meigs.
Here, on the first of May, he was besieged by Gen.
Proctor, with a force of one thousand regulars and
militia, and one thousand two hundred Indians. For
nine days, the siege was urged with great zeal ; but,
finding the capture of the place impracticable, on the
9th, Proctor raised the siege, and retreated to Maiden.
Gen. Harrison returned to Franklinton, in Ohio, leaving
the fort under the care of Gen. Clay.

On the third day of the siege, an officer from the British de-
manded the surrender of the fort ; to which Harrison character-
istically replied, " Not, sir, while I have the honor to command."

On the fifth, intelligence was received of the approach of a
reinforcement of American troops under Gen. Clay, from Ken-
tucky. Aided by these, a sortie was made upon the British,
which proved so disastrous to both, that, for the three following
days, hostilities were suspended, and prisoners exchanged. On
the ninth, preparations were made to renew the siege ; but, sud
20

302 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

denly, the British general ordered it to be raised, and with hia
whole force retired.

30. During the remainder of the spring, the war con-
tinued along the Canada line, and on some parts of the
sea-board ; but nothing important was achieved by either
power.

The Chesapeake Bay was blockaded by the British, and pred-
atory excursions, by their troops, were made at Havre de Grace,
Georgetown, &c. Several villages were burnt, and much prop-
erty plundered and destroyed. To the north of the Chesapeake,
the coast was not exempt from the effects of the war. A strict
blockade was kept up at New York. The American frigates
Unitefl States and Macedonian, and the sloop Hornet, attempted
to sail on a cruise from that port, about the beginning of May,
but were prevented. In another attempt, they were chased into
New London harbor, where they were blockaded by a fleet un-
der Commodore Hardy, for many months. Fort George, in
Canada, was taken by the Americans. Sacket's Harbor was
attacked by one thousand British, who were repulsed with con-
siderable loss.

31. On the first of June, the American navy expe-
rienced no inconsiderable loss, in the capture of the
Chesapeake, by the British frigate Shannon, off Boston
harbor — a loss the more severely felt, as on board of her
fell several brave officers, among whom was her com
mander, the distinguished and lamented Capt. Lawrence.

Capt. Lawrence had been but recently promoted to the com-
mand of the Chesapeake. On his arrival at Boston, to take
charge of her, he was informed that a British frigate was lying
off the harbor, apparently inviting an attack. Prompted by the
ardor which pervaded the service, he resolved to meet the enemy,
without sufficiently examining his strength. With a crew chiefly
enlisted for the occasion, as that of the Chesapeake had 'mostly
been discharged, on the first of June, he sailed out of the harbor.

The Shannon, observing the Chesapeake put to sea, imme-
diately followed. At half past five, the two ships engaged. By
the first broadside, the sailing-master of the Chesapeake was.
killed, and Lieut. Ballard mortally wounded. Lieut. Brown and
Capt. Lawrence were severely wounded at the same time. A
second and third broadside, besides adding to the destruction of
her officers, so disabled the Chesapeake in her rigging, that her
quarter fell on the Shannon's anchor. This accident may be
considered aa deciding the contest; an opportunity was given
Vhe enemy to rake the Chesapeake, and, toward the close of the

madison's administration. 303

notion, to board her. Capt. Lawrence, though severely wounded,
still kept the deck. In the act of summoning the boarders, a mus-
ket ball entered his body, and brought him down. As he was
carried below, he issued a last heroic order — " Don't give up the
skip;" but it was too late to retrieve what was lost; the British
boarders leaped into the vessel, and, after a short but bloody strug-
gle, hoisted the British flag.

In this sanguinary conflict, twenty-three of the enemy were
killed, and fifty wounded : on board the Chesapeake, about sev-
enty were killed, and eighty-three wounded.

32. The tide of fortune seemed now, for a short time,
to turn in favor of Great Britain. On the 14th of August,
the Argus, of eighteen guns, another of our national
vessels, was captured by the Pelican, of twenty guns.

The Argus had been employed to carry out Mr. Crawford, as
minister, to France. After landing him, she proceeded to cruise
in the British channel, and, for two months, greatly annoyed the
British shipping. At length, that government was induced to
send several vessels in pursuit of her. On the 14th of August,
the Pelican, a sloop of war, of superior force, discovered her, and
bore down feo action. At the first broadside, Capt. Allen fell,
severely woTinded, but remained on deck for some time, when
it was necessary to carry him below. After a hard-fought action,
the Argus was obliged to surrender, with a loss of six killed and
seventeen wounded. On board the Pelican there were but three
killed and five wounded. Captain Allen died soon after in Eng-
land, and was interred with the honors of war.

33. After the loss of the Chesapeake and Argus, vic-
tory again returned to the side of America. On the 5th
of September following, the British brig Boxer surren-
dered to the Enterprise, after an engagement of little
more than half an hour.

The Enterprise sailed from Portsmouth on the 1st, and was on
the 5th descried by the Boxer, which immediately gave chase.
After the action had continued for fifteen minutes, the Enter-
prise ranged ahead, and raked her enemy so powerfully* that in
twenty minutes the firing ceased, and the cry of quarter was
heard' The Enterprise nari one killed and thirteen wounded ;
but that one was her lamented commander, Lieut. Burrows. He
fell at the commencement of the action, but continued to cheer
nis crew, averring that the flag should never be struck. When
the sword of the enemy was presented to him, he exclaimed, " I
die contented." The British loss was more considerable. Among
their killed was Capt. Blythe. These two commanders, both in

304 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

the morning of life, were interred beside eachothei, at Portland
with military honors.

34. During these occurrences on the sea-board, im-
portant preparations had been made for decisive meas-
ures to the westward, and the general attention was now
turned, with great anxiety, towards the movements of
the north-western army, and the fleet under command
of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie.

This anxiety, not long after, was, in a measure, dis-
pelled, by a decisive victory of the American fleet over
that of the British, on Lake Erie, achieved, after along
and desperate conflict, on the 10th of September.

The American squadron consisted of nine vessels, carrying
fifty-four guns ; that of the British, of six vessels, and sixty-three
guns. The line of battle was formed at eleven, and at a quarter
before twelve, the enemy's flag ship, Queen Charlotte, opened a
tremendous fire upon the Lawrence, the flag ship of Commo-
dore Perry, which was sustained by the latter ten minutes before
she could bring her carronades to bear. At length she bore up
and engaged the enemy, mkaing signals to the remainder of
the squadron to hasten to her support. Unfortunately, the wind
was too light to admit of a compliance with the order, and she
was compelled to contend, for two hours, with two ships of equal
force. By this time, the brig had become unmanageable, and
her crew, excepting four or five, were either killed o* wounded.

While thus surrounded with death, and destruction still pour-
ing in upon him, Perry left the brig, now only a wreck, in an
open boat, and, heroically waving his sword, passed unhurt to the
Niagara, of twenty guns. The wind now rose. Ordering every
canvass to be spread, he bore down upon the enemy — passing the
enemy's vessels Detroit, Queen Charlotte, and Lady Prevost, on
the one side, and the Chippewa and Little Belt on the other,
into each of which he poured a broadside, — he at length en-
gaged the Lady Prevost, which received so heavy a fire as to com-
pelher men to retire below.

The remainder of the American squadron, now, one after
another, arrived, and, following the example of their intrepid
leader, closed in with the enemy, and the battle became general.

Three hours finished the contest, and enabled Perry to an-
nounce to Gen. Harrison the capture of the whole squadron,
which he did in this modest, laconic, and emphatic style : — " We
have met the enemy, and they are ours."

The loss in the contest was great in proportion to the numbers
engaged. The Americans had twenty-seven killed and ninety*

madison's administration. 305

six wounded. But the British loss was still greater, being about
two hundred in killed and wounded. The prisoners amounted
to six hundred, exceeding the whole number of Americans en-
gaged in the action.

35. The Americans being now masters of Lake Erie,
a passage to the territory which had been surrendered
by Gen. Hull was open to them. With a view of making
a descent upon Maiden and Detroit, Gen. Harrison
called on a portion of the Ohio militia, which, together
with 4000 Kentuckians, under Gov. Shelby, and his
own regular troops, constituted his force, for the above
object.

On the 27th of September, the troops were received on board
the fleet, and on the same day reached Maiden. But, to their
surprise, they found that fortress and the public storehouses
burned.

On the following day, the Americans marched in pursuit of
Proctor and his troops ; and on the 2!)th entered, and took posses-
sion of Detroit.

Leaving Detroit on the second of October, Harrison and Shel-
by proceeded with 3500 men, selected for the purpose, and, on
the fifth, reached the place of Proctor's encampment, which was
the Moravian village, on the Thames, about eighty miles from
Detroit. The American troops were immediately formed in the
order of battle, and the armies engaged with the most determined
courage. In this contest, the celebrated Tecumseh was slain.
Upon Iris fall, the Indians immediately fled. This led to the de-
feat of the whole British force, which surrendered, except about
two hundred dragoons, which, with Proctor at their head, were
enabled to escape.

Of the British, nineteen regulars were killed, fifty wounded,
and six hundred made prisoners. The Indians left one hundred
and twenty on the field. The loss of the Americans was up-
wards of fifty, in killed and wounded. On this field of battle,
the latter had the pleasure to retake six brass field pieces which
had been surrendered by Hull ; on two of which were inscribed
the words, " Surrendered by Burgoyne, at Saratoga."

Tecumseh, who fell in this battle, was in several respects the
most celebrated Indian warrior which ever raised an arm against
the Americans. " He had been in almost every engagement
with the whites, since Harmer's defeat, although at his death ha
scarcely exceeded forty years of age. Tecumseh had received
the stamp of greatness from the hand of nature ; and had his lot
been cast in a different state of society, he would have shone
one of the most distinguished of men. He was endowed witb

26*

30G teriod x.— IS09 to 1817.

a powerful mind, with the soul of a hero. There was an uncom-
mon dignity in his countenance and manners ; by the former,
he could easily be discovered, even after death, among the rest
of the slain, for he wore no insignia of distinction. When gird-
ed with a silk sash, and told by Gen. Proctor that he was made
a brigadier in the British service, for his conduct at Brownstown
and Magagua, he returned the present with respectful contempt.
Born with no title to command, but his native greatness, every
tribe yielded submission to him at once, and no one ever disput-
ed his precedence. Subtle and fierce in war, he was possessed
of uncommon eloquence : his speeches might bear a comparison
with those of the most celebrated orators of Greece and Rome.
His invective was terrible, as may be seen in the reproaches
which he applied to Proctor, a few days before his death, in a
speech which was found among the papers of the British officers. .
His form was uncommonly elegant ; his stature about six feet,
his limbs perfectly proportioned. He wTas honorably interred by
the victors, by whom lie was held in much respect, as an invet-
erate, but magnanimous enemy."*

86. The fall of Detroit put an end to the Indian war
in that quarter, and gave security to the frontiers. Gen.
Harrison now dismissed a greater part of his volunteers,
and, having stationed Gen. Cass at Detroit, with about
one thousand men, proceeded, according to his instruc-
tions, with the remainder of his forces, to Buffalo, to
join the army of the centre.

37. The result of the operations of the north-west,
and the victory on Lake Erie, prepared the way to at-
tempt a more effectual invasion of Canada.

Gen. Dearborn having some time before this retired
from the service, Gen. Wilkinson was appointed to suc-
ceed him as commander-in-chief, and arrived at Sachet's
Harbor on the 20th of August. The chief object of
his instructions was the capture of Kingston, although
the reduction of Canada, by an attack upon Montreal,
was the ulterior object of the campaign.

The forces destined for the accomplishment of these
purposes were an army of five thousand, at Fort George ;
two thousand under Gen. Lewis,, at Sachet's Harbor ;
four thousand at Plattsburg, under the command of Gen.

* Brackenridgc.

madison's adminjstration 307

Hampton, which latter, proceeding by the way of Cham-
plain, were to form a junction with the main body, at
some place on the river St. Lawrence ; and, finally, the
victorious troops of Gen. Harrison, which were expected
to arrive in season to furnish important assistance.

On the fifth of September, Gen. Armstrong, who had
recently been appointed secretary of war, arrived at
Sacket's Harbor, to aid in the above project. The plan
of attacking Kingston was now abandoned, and it was
determined to proceed immediately to Montreal. Un-
expected difficulties, however, occurred, which prevent-
ed the execution of the plan, and the American force
under Wilkinson retired into winter quarters, at French
Mills. The forces of Gen. Hampton, after penetrating
the country some distance to join Wilkinson, retired
again to Plattsburg. The forces of Gen. Harrison were
not ready to join the expedition, until the troops had
gone into winter quarters.

The forces of Gen. Wilkinson were concentrated, previous to
embarkation, at Grenadier Island, between Sacket's Harbor and
Kingston, lbO miles from Montreal, reckoned by the river.
Owing to tempestuous weather, the fleet was detained some days
after the troops were on board ; but finally set sail on the 30th.

Unexpected obstacles impeded the progress of the expedition,
especially parties of the enemy, which had been stationed at
every convenient position on the Canada shore. To disperse
these, a body of troops, under command of Gen. Brown, was
landed, and directed to march in advance of the boats.

On the 11th, the troops and flotilla having arrived at Williams-
burg, just'as they were about to proceed, a powerful body of the
enemy, 2000 in number, was discovered approaching in the
rear. Wilkinson, being too much indisposed to take the com-
mand, appointed Gen. Boyd to attack them, in which his troops
were assisted by the brigades of Generals Covington and
Swartwout.

JTor three hours, the action was bravely sustained by the op-
posing forces. Both parties, in the issue, claimed the victory ;
but neither could, in truth, be said to be entitled to it — the Brit-
ish returning to their encampment, and the Americans to theii
boats. In this engagement, the loss of the latter was 330, of
whom 102 were killed. Gen. Covington ally woundeo

and died two days after. The Briti hi

308 teriod x.— 1S09 to 1817.

A few days previous to the battle, as Gen. Harrison had not
arrived, Wilkinson despatched orders to Gen. Hampton to meet
him, with his army, al St. Etegis. On the 12th, a communication
\v;is returned from Hampton, in which he declined a compliance
with the above orders, on the ground, that the provisions of Wil-
kinson were not adequate to the wants of both armies, and that
it would be impossible i>> transport provisions from Plattsburg.

On the receipt of this intelligence, a council of war was sum-
noned by Wilkinson, by which it was decided to abandon the
attack on Montreal, ami to go into winter quarters at French Mills.

Shortly aiter, Gen. Hampton, learning that the contemplated
expedition against Montreal was abandoned, himself paused in
his advance towards Montreal, by the way of Chateaugay, and
returned to Plattsburg, where he established his winter quarters.
So<-n after, his health failing, he resigned his commission, and
was succeeded in command by Gen. Izard.

Thus ended ;i campaign, which gave rise to a dissat-
isfaction proportioned to the high expectations that had
been indulged of its success. Public opinion was much
divided as to the causes of its failure, and as to the par-
ties to whom the blame was properly to be attached.

38. The proposal of the emperor of Russia to medi
ate between the United States and Great Britain, has
been mentioned. [Sec. 27.) This proposal, however,
Great Britain thought expedient to decline ; but the
prince regent offered a direct negotiation, either at Lon-
don or Gottenburg. The offer was no sooner commu-
nicated to our government, than accepted, and Messrs.
Henry Clay and Jonathan Russel were appointed, in
addition to the commissioners already in Europe, and
toon after sailed for Gottenburg. Lord Gambier, Henry
Goulbourn, and William Adams, were appointed, on the
part of the court of St. James, to meet them. The place
of their meeting was first fixed at Gottenburg, but sub-
sequently was changed to Ghent, in Flanders., where the
commissioners assembled in August.

39. Soon after the northern armies had gone into
winter quarters, as noticed above, the public attention
was directed to a war which the Creek Indians, being
instigated thereto by the British government, dec]
against the United States, and which proved ding-

madison's administration. 309

]y sanguinary in its progress, during the year 1813, and
until the clo.-c of the summer of 1814, when Gen. Jackson,
who conducted it, on the part of the Americans, having,
in several rencounters, much reduced them, and finally
and signally defeated them, in the battle of Tohopeka,
or IIorse-Shoe-Bend, concluded a treaty with them,
August 9th, on conditions advantageous to the United
States. Having accomplished this service, Gen. Jack-
son returned to Tennessee, and was soon after appointed
to succeed Gen. Wilkinson in the command of the forces
at New Orleans.

The commencement of hostilities by the Creeks was an attack
upon Fort Mimms, on the 30th of August, 1813, by six hundred
Jndians, who, taking the fort by surprise, massacred three hun-
dred men, women, and children, excepting seventeen, who alone
effected their escape.

On the receipt of this disastrous intelligence, two thousand
men from Tennessee, under Gen. Jackson, and 500 tinder Gen.
Coffee, immediately marched to the country of the Creeks. In
a series of engagements, first at Tall ushatches, next at Talladega,
and subsequently at Autossee, Emucfau, and other places, the
Creeks were defeated, though with no inconsiderable loss, in
several instances, to the Americans.

But notwithstanding these repeated defeats and serious 1
the'Creeks remained unsubdued. Still determined not to yield,
they, commenced fortifying the bend of Tallapoosa river, called
by them Tohopeka, but by the Americans Horse-Shoe-Bend.
Their principal work consisted of a breast-work, from five to eight
feet high, across the peninsula, by means of which nearly i
hundred acres of land were rendered admirably secure. Through
this breast- work a double row of port-holes were so artfully ar-
ranged, that whoever assailed it must be exposed to a double and
cross fire from the Indians, who lay behind, to the number of' i:°.
thousand.

Against this fortified refuge of the infatuated Creeks, Gen.
Jackson, having gathered up his forces, proceeded on the 24th of
March. On the night of the 26th, he encamped within six miles
of the bend. On the 27th, he detached Gen. Coffee, with a conv

{>etent number of men, to pass the river, at a ford three miles be-
ow the bend, for the purpose of preventing the Indians effecting
their escape, if inclined, by crossing the river.

With the remainder of his force, Gen. Jackson now advaneed
to the front of the breast-work, and, at half past ten, planted his
artillery on a small eminence, at only a moderate distance.

Affairs being now arranged? the artillery opened a tremendoua

310 period x.— 1809 to 1S17.

fire upon the breast-work, while Gen. Coffee, with his force be«
Low, continued to advance towards an Indian village, which stood
at the extremity of the peninsula. A well-directed lire across the
river, which here is but about one hundred yards wide, drove the
Indian inhabitants train their houses up to the fortifications.

At length, finding all his arrangements complete, and the favor-
ite moment arrived. Gen. Jackson led on his now animated troops
to ihe charge. For a short time, an obstinate contest was main*
tained at the breast-work — muzzle to muzzle through the port-
holes— when the Americans succeeded in gaining the opposite
side of the works. A mournful scene of slaughter ensued. In
a short time, the Indians were routed, and the whole plain was
strewed with the dead. Five hundred and fifty-seven were found,
and a large number were drowned in attempting to escape by the
river. Three hundred women and children were taken prisoners.
The loss of the Americans was twenty-six killed, and one hun-
dred and seven wounded. Eighteen friendly Cherokees were
killed, and thirty-six wounded, and five friendly Creeks were
killed, and eleven wounded.

This signal defeat of the Creeks put an end to the war. Short-
ly after, the remnant of the nation sent in their submission
Among these was the prophet and leader, Weatherford. In bold
and impressive language, he said — " I am in your power. Do
with me what you please. I have done the white people all the
harm 1 could. I have fought them, and fought them bravely.
There was a time when I had a choice; I have none now — even
hope is ended. Once 1 could animate my warriors; but I cannot
animate the dead. They can no longer hear my voice; their
nones are at Tallushatches, Talladega, Enmclau, and Tohopeka.
While there was a chance of success, I never supplicated peace ;
but in)- people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and my-
self."

On the 9th of August, a treaty was made with them by Gen.
Jackson. They agreed to yield a portion of their territory as in-
demnity for the expenses of the war — to allow the opening of
roads through their lands — to admit the whites to the free navi-
gation of their rivers — and to take no more bribes from the
British.

40. On the 2d of December, the fifteenth congress
commenced its second session. The principal objects
to which its attention was directed were the enactment
of restriction laws, (embargo and non-importation acts)
— the subsequent repeal of these acts — the offer of the
unprecedented bounty of one hundred and twenty-four
dollars to all soldiers who should enlist for. five years or

MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 311

during the war — and an appropriation of half a million
of dollars to construct one or more floating steam bat-
teries.

An extra session of congress had been held, extending from
May 24th to August 2d, the same year. The principal business
of this session was the providing of means to replenish the treasu-
ry. This it was at length decided to accomplish by a system of
internal duties ; and accordingly laws were passed laying taxes
on lands, houses, distilled liquors, refined sugars, retailers' li-
censes, carriages, &c. From this source the sum of five millions
and a half of dollars was expected to flow into the treasury ; in
addition to which, a loan of seven millions and a half was au-
thorized.

Early in the regular session of 1813 — 1814, an embargo was laid
upon all American vessels, with a design to deprive the enemy's
ships on the coast of supplies, and to secure more effectually
the American shipping from introducing British manufactures.
Against such measures the opposers of the war were loud in their
complaints, on the ground that they were needless, and highly
injurious to the prosperity of the country. Although these acts
passed, in the month of April following, owing to important
changes in the relative state of the belligerent nations of Europe,
they were repealed.

41. The spring of 1814 was distinguished for the loss
of the American frigate Essex, Commodore David For
tor, which was captured on the 28th of March, in the
bay of Valparaiso, South America, by a superior British
force.

42. Two other naval engagements took place about
this time, both of which resulted in favor of the Ameri-
can flag. The first of these was between the United
States' sloop of war Peacock and the British brig Eper-
rier, April 29th ; and the second, June 28th, between
ihe sloop Wasp and the English brig Reindeer. Pre-
viously to the action with the Reindeer, the Wasp cap-
tured seven of the enemy's merchantmen.

The action between the first two mentioned vessels lasted but
fortv-five minutes. During its continuance, the Eporvier had
eight men killed, and fifteen wounded. The Peacock escaped
with but a single man killed, and with only two wounded. This
engagement look place in lat. 27° 47' north, and long. 30° W.

The action between the Wasp and Reindeer was but eighteen

312 pertod x.— 1809 to 1817.

minutes; yet the destruction of life was much greater. The lat-
ter vessel lost her commander, Capt. Manners, and twenty-seven
men killed, and forty-two wounded. Twice the British attempt-
ed to board the Wasp, but were as often repulsed. At length, the
American tars boarded the Reindeer, and tore down her colors.
The loss of the latter, in killed and wounded, was twenty-six.
Their prize was so much injured, that, on the following day, she
was burned.

43. Gen. Wilkinson continued encamped with his
army at French Mills, (Sec. 37,) whither he had retired
in November, 1813, until February, 1814, when, by or
der of the secretary of war, he detached 2000 troops,
under Gen. Brown, to protect the Niagara frontier ;

v won after which, destroying his barracks, he retired with
the residue of his forces to Plattsburg.

The British, apprized of this movement, detached a large force,
under Col. Scott, which destroyed the public stores, with the
arsenal of the Americans, at Malone, which had belonged to the
cantonment of French Mills ; but, on hearing of the approach of
a large American force, they hastily retreated.

44. The movements of Gen. Wilkinson indicating a
disposition to attempt the invasion of Canada, a detach-
ment of two thousand British, under Major Hancock, was
ordered to take post and fortify themselves at La Colle
Mill, near the river Sorel, to defeat the above object.
With a view of dislodging this party, Wilkinson; at the
head of 4000 men, crossed the Canada lines, on the 30th
of March. On the following day, he commenced a can-
nonade upon the works of the enemy ; but finding it im-
practicable to make an impression on this strong build-
ing, he retired with his forces, having lost in the affray
upwards of 140 in killed and wounded.

The unfortunate issue of this movement, and the equally un- '
fortunate termination of the last campaign, brought Gen. Wil-
kinson into such discredit with the American public, that, yield
in<r to the general opinion, the administration suspended him
from the command, in which he was succeeded by Gen. Izard.
At a subsequent day, Wilkinson was tried before a court mar-
tial at Troy, by which he was acquitted, but not without hesi«
folium .

MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 318

45. For three months following the above movement,
the armies of both nations continued inactive. On the
part of the British, the war seemed to languish, the na-
tion at home being occupied with events which were
transpiring in Europe of a most extraordinary character.
But-when, at length, the emperor of France had abdi-
cated his empire, and Louis XVIII. was seated upon his
legitimate throne, England was at liberty to direct against
America the immense force which she had employed in
her continental wars. Accordingly, at this time, the
British forces were augmented by 14,000 veteran troops,
which had fought under Wellington ; and, at the same
time, a strong naval force was despatched to blockade
the American coast, and ravage our maritime towns.

46. It has been already noticed, that Gen. Brown was
detached by Wilkinson, with 2000 troops, from French
Mills, (Sec. 43,) to proceed to the Niagara frontier. For
a time, he stopped at Sacket's Harbor; but, at length,
proceeded with his army to Buffalo. By the addition of
Towson's artillery, and a corps of volunteers, his force
was augmented to 3500 effective men.

On the 2d and 3d of July, he crossed the river Ni-
agara, and took possession of the British Fort Erie, which
surrendered without resistance. At a few miles distant,
in a strong position, at Chippewa, was intrenched an
equal number of British troops, under command of Gen.
Riall. On the 4th, Gen. Brown approached these works.
On the following day, the two armies met in the open
field. The contest was obstinate and bloody; but, at
length, the Americans proved victorious, while the Brit-
ish retired with the loss of 514 men. The loss of the
Americans was 328.

47. Immediately after this defeat, Gen. Riall retired
to Burlington Heights. Here, Lieut. Gen. Drummond,
with a large force, joined him, and, assuming the com-
mand, led back the army towards the American camp.
On the 25th, the two armies met at Bridgewater, neai
the cataract of Niagara, and a most desperate engage

314 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

ment ensued, about sunset, and lasted till midnight. At
length, the Americans were left in quiet possession of
the field.

The battle of Bridgewater, or Niagara, was one of the most
bloody conflicts recorded in modern warfare. The British force
engaged fell something short of 5000 men, including 1500 militia
and Indians. The force of the Americans was by one thira less.
The total loss of the British was 878. Generals Drummond and
Riall were among the wounded. The Americans lost, in killed,
wounded, and missing, 860.- Among the killed were eleven
officers, and among the wounded, fifty-six. Both Generals Brown
and Scott were among the latter. On receiving his wound, Gen.
Brown directed Gen. Ripley to assume the command. Unfor
tunately, the Americans, having no means to remove the British
artillery which had been captured, were obliged to leave it on
the field. On being apprized of this, the British forthwith re-
turned, and took their artillery again in charge. Owing to this
circumstance, the British officers had the hardihood, in their de-
spatches to government, to claim the victory.

48. Gen. Ripley, finding his numbers too much re-
duced to withstand a force so greatly his superior, deem-
ed it prudent to return to Fort Erie. On the 4th of
August, this fort was invested by Gen. Drummond, with
5000 men ; and for 49 days the siege was pressed with
great zeal ; but, at length, the British general was
obliged to retire, without having accomplished his object.

The American force was at this time reduced to 1600 men.
On the 5th, Gen. Gaines arrived at Erie from Sachet's Harbor,
and took the command. On the 15th, a large British force ad
yanced, in three columns, under Colonels Drummond. Fischer,
and Scott, against the fort, but v ere repulsed with the signal loss
of 57 killed, 319 wounded, and 539 missing. Among the killed
were Colonels Drummond and Scott.

For some time following this rencontre, both armies were in-
active. But, at length, the distressed state of the besieged
Americans in the fort attracting the attention of government, a
force of five thousand, under Gen. Izard, was ordered from Platts
buro" to proceed to their relief.

On the 17th of September, Gen. Brown, who had recovered
from his wounds, and had resumed the*command of the fort,
ordered a sortie, in which the Americans were so successful, that
Gen. Drummond was obliged to raise the siege, and to retire with
the loss of a great quantity of artillery and ammunition, and of 1000
new, which were his number of killed, wounded, and prisoners,

JilA ON. o!0

Shortly after, the troops under Gen. Izard arriving, the Ameri-
Bail3 were, able to commence offensive operations. They, there- -
fore, leaving only a moderate garrison in the fort, now advanced
towards Chippewa, where Drummond had taken post. Near this
place a partial battle occurred on the 20th of October, in which
the Americans so far gained the advantage as to cause the ene-
my to retire.

49. While these events were transpiring in the north,
the public attention was irresistibly drawn to the move-
ments of the enemy, on the sea-board. About the mid-
dle of August, between fifty and sixty British sail arrived
iri the Chesapeake, with troops destined for the attack
of Washington, the capital of the United States. On
the 23d of August, six thousand British troops, com-
manded by Gen. Ross, forced their way to that place,
and burnt the capitol, president's house, and executive
offices. Having thus accomplished an object highly dis-
graceful to the British arms, and wantonly burned pub-
lic buildings, the ornament and pride of the nation, the
destruction of which could not hasten the termination of
the war — on the 25th they retired, and, by rapid marches,
regained their shipping, having lost, during the expedi-
tion, nearly one thousand men.

The troops under Gen. Ross were landed at Benedict, on»the
Patuxent, forty-seven miles from Washington. On the 21st, they
moved towards Nottingham, and the following day, reached
Marlborough. A British flotilla, commanded by Cockburn, con-
sisting of launches and barges, ascended the river at the same
time, keeping on the right flank of the army. The day follow-
ing, on approaching the American flotilla of Commodore Barney,
which had taken refuge high up the river, twelve miles from
Washington, some sailors, left on board the flotilla for the purpose,
should it be necessary, set fire to it, and fled.

On the arrival of the British army at Bladensburg, six miles
from Washington, Gen. Winder, commander of the American
forces, chiefly militia collected for the occasion, ordered them to
e the enemy. The principal part of the militia, hov
at the opening of the contest. Commodore Barney, with a
few eighteen pounders, and about four hundred men. made a
gallant resistance ; but, being overpowered by numbers, and him-
self wounded, he and a part of his brave band were ooinpelledlo
surrender themselves prisoners of war.

From Bladensburg, Gen. Ross urged his march to Washington,

BIG period x.— 1809 to 1817.

where he arrived at about 8 o'clock in the evening. Having
stationed his main body at the distance of a mile and a half from
the capital, he entered the city, at the head of about seven hun-
dred men, soon after which, he issued his orders for the confla-
gration of the public buildings. With the capitol were consum-
ed its valuable libraries, and all the furniture, and articles of
taste and value, in that and in the other buildings. The great
bridge across the Potomac was burned, together with an elegant
hotel, and other private buildings.

50. The capture of Washington was followed, Sep-
tember 12th, by an attack on Baltimore, in which the
American forces, militia, and inhabitants of Baltimore,
made a gallant defence. Being, however, overpowered
by a superior force, they were compelled to retreat ; but
they fought so valiantly, that the attempt to gain posses-
sion of the city was abandoned by the enemy, who, dur-
ing the night of Tuesday, 13th, retired to their shipping,
having lost, among their killed, Gen. Ross, the command-
er-in-chief of the British troops.

The British army, after the capture of Washington, having
re-embarked on board the fleet in the Patuxent, Admiral Coch-
rane moved down that river, and proceeded up the Chesapeake.
On the morning of the 11th of September, he appeared at the
mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from Baltimore, with a
fleet of ships of war and transports, amounting to fifty sail.

On the next day, 12th, land forces, to the number of six thou-
sand, were landed at North Point, and, under the command of
Gen. Ross, commenced their march towards the city. In antici
pation of the landing of the troops, Gen. Strieker was despatched
with three thousand two hundred men from Baltimore, to keep
the enemy in check.

On the 12th, a battle was fought by the two armies. Early in
the engagement, a considerable part of Gen. Strieker's troops
retreated in confusion, leaving him scarcely one thousand four
hundred men, to whom was opposed the whole body of the ene-
my. An incessant fire was continued from half past two o'clock,
till a little before four, when Gen. Strieker, finding the contest
unequal, and that the enemy outflanked him, retreated upon his
reserve, which was effected in good order.

The loss of the Americans, in killed and wounded, amounted
to one hundred and sixty-three, among whom were some of the
most respectable citizens of Baltimore.

The enemy made his appearance, the next, morning, in front
of the American intrenchments, at a distance of two miles from
the city, showing an intention of renewing the attack.

MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 317

In the mean time, an attack was made on Fort M'Henry,from
frigates, bombs, and rocket vessels, which continued through the
day, and the greater part of the night, doing, however, but little
damage.

In the course of the night of Tuesday, Admiral Cochrane held
a communication with the commander of the land forces, and,
the enterprise of taking the city being deemed impracticable, the
troops were re-embarked ; and the next day, the fleet descended
the bay, to the great joy of the released inhabitants.

51. The joy experienced in all parts of the United
States, on account of the brave defence of Baltimore,
had scarcely subsided, when intelligence was received
of the signal success of the Americans at Plattsburg,
and on Lake Champlain. The army of Sir George Pre-
vost, amounting to fourteen thousand men, was com-
pelled by Gen. Macomb to retire from the former, and
the enemy's squadron, commanded by Commodore Dow-
nie, was captured by Commodore Macdonough on the
latter.

Towards the close of the winter of 1814, Gen. Wilkinson, with
his army, removed from their winter-quarters at French Mills,
and took station at Plattsburg. Gen. Wilkinson leaving the
command of the army, Gen. Izard succeeded him at this plaee.
By September, the troops at Plattsburg were diminished, by de-
tachments withdrawn to other stations, to one thousand five hun-
dred men.

In this state of the forces, it was announced that Sir George
Frevost, governor-general of Canada, with an army of fourteen
thousand men, completely equipped, and accompanied by a
numerous train of artillery, was about making a descent on
Plattsburg.

At this time, both the Americans and British had a respectable
naval force on Lake Champlain ; but that of the latter was con-
siderably the superior, amounting to ninety-five guns, and one
thousand and fifty men, while the American squadron carried
but eighty-six guns, and eight hundred and twenty-six men.

"On the 11th of September, while the American fleet was ly-
ing off Plattsburg, the British squadron was observed bearing
down upon it in order of battle.

Commodore Macdonough, ordering his vessels cleared for ac-
tion, gallantly received the enemy. An engagement ensued,
which lasted two hours and twenty minutes. By this time, the
enemy was silenced, and one frigate, one brig, and two sloops
af war, fell into the hands of the Americans. Several British

27*

318

PERIOD X. 1S09 TO 1S17.

galleys were sunk, and a few others escaped. The loss of the
Americans was fifty-two killed, and fifty-eight wounded ; of the
British, eighty-four killed, and one hundred and ten wounded.

Previously to this eventful day, Sir George Prevost, with his
army, arrived in the vicinity of Plattsburg. In anticipation of
this event, Gen. Macomb made every preparation, which time
and means allowed, and called in to his assistance considerable
numbers of the militia.

In the sight of these two armies, the rival squadrons com
inenced their contest. And, as if their engagement had been a
preconcerted signal, and as if to raise still higher the solemn
grandeur of the scene, Sir George Prevost now led up his forces
against the American works, and began throwing upon them
shells, balls, and rockets.

At the same time, the Americans opened a severe and de-
structive fire fmm their forts. Before sunset, the temporary bat-
teries of Sir George Prevost were all silenced, and every at-
tempt of the enemy to cross from Plattsburg to the American
works was repelled. At nine o'clock, perceiving the attainment
of his object impracticable, the British general hastily withdrew
nis forces, diminished by killed, wounded, and deserted, two
thousand five hundred. At the same time, he abandoned vast
quantities of military stores, and left the inhabitants of Platti-
Lmrg to take Care of the sick and wounded of his army, and th«

madison's administration. 319

w star-spangled banner" to wave in triumph over the waters of
Cham plain.

52. The opposition of the iSlew England representatives
in congress to the declaration of war has been noticed.
[Sec. 12.) In this opposition, a great majority of their
constituents coincided ; and, during the progress of the
war, that opposition became confirmed, and apprehen-
sions were indulged that, in consequence of the ill—
management of the general government, a crisis was
forming, which might involve the country in ruin.

Under these apprehensions, in October, 1814, the le-
gislature of Massachusetts recommended the meeting
of a convention from the New England states. This
measure, though strongly opposed, was adopted by thai
body. Delegates were accordingly chosen. This ex
ample was followed by Rhode Island and Connecticut
Vermont refused, and New Hampshire neglected to send.

On the 15th of December, these delegates, together
with two elected by counties in New Hampshire, and
one similarly elected in Vermont, met at Hartford. Af-
ter a session of near three weeks, they published a re-
port, in which, after dwelling upon the public grievances
felt by the New England states particularly, and by the
country at large, in no small degree, they proceeded to
suggest several alterations of the federal constitution ,
with a view to their adoption by the respective states of
the Union,

These alterations consisted of seven articles -.—first, that rep
resentatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned to the number
of free persons ; — secondly, that no new state shall be admitted
into the Union, without the concurrence of two thirds of both
houses ; — thirdly, that congress shall not have power to lay an
embargo for more than sixty days ; — fcnirthly, that congress shall
not interdict commercial intercourse, without the concurrence of
two thirds of both houses ; — -fifthly, that war shall not be declared
without the concurrence of a similar majority ; — sixthly, that no
person, who shall be hereafter naturalized, shall be eligible as a
member of the senate. or house of representatives, or hold a.ny
civil office under the authority of the United States; and, sev-
enthly, that no person shall be elected twice to tlfe presidency,

320 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

nor the president be elected from the same state two terms in
Buccession.

The conclusion of a treaty of peace with Great Britain, not
iong after, being announced, another convention was not called ;
and, on the submission of the above amendments of the consti-
tution to the several states, they were rejected.

53. In the month of December, a British fleet of six-
ty sail, having arrived on the coast east of the Mississippi,
landed fifteen thousand troops. These, on the 8th of
January, 1815, under command of Sir Edward Packen-
ham, attacked the Americans, amounting to about six
thousand, chiefly militia, in their intrenchments, before
New Orleans. After an engagement of more than an
hour, the enemy, having lost their commander-in-chief,
and Maj. Gen. Gibbs, and having been cut to pieces in
an almost unexampled degree, fled in confusion, leaving
their dead and wounded on the field of battle.

During several preliminary engagements, Gen. Jackson, now
commanding at New Orleans, had been diligently employed in
preparations to defend the place. His front was a straight line
of one thousand yards, defended by upwards of three thousand
infantry and artillerists. The ditch contained five feet of water,
and his front, from having been flooded by opening the levees,
and by frequent rains, was rendered slippery and muddy. Eight
distinct batteries were judiciously disposed, mounting in all
twelve guns of different calibers. On the opposite side of the
river was a strong battery of fifteen guns.

On the morning of the 8th of January, General Packenham
orought up his forces, amounting to twelve thousand men, to the
attack. The British deliberately advanced in solid columns,
over an even plain, in front of the American intrenchments, the
men carrying, besides their muskets, fascines, and some of them
ladders.

A solemn silence now prevailed through the American lines,
until the enemy approached within reach of the batteries,
which at that moment opened an incessant and destructive can
nonade. The enemy, notwithstanding, continued to advance,
closing up their ranks as fast as they were opened by the fire
of the Americans.

At length, they came within reach of the musketry and rifles.
The extended American line now unitedly presented one sheet
of fire, and poured in upon the British columns an unceasing
tide of death. Hundreds fell at every discharge, and bv columns
were swept away

madison's administration. 321

Being unable to stand the shock, the British became disordc-r-
ed and fled. In an attempt to rally them, Gen. Packenham was
killed. Generals Gibbs and Kean succeeded in pushing forward
their columns a second time, but the second approach was still
more fatal than the first. The fires again rolled from the Ameri-
can batteries, and from thousands of muskets. The advancing
columns again broke and fled ; a few platoons only reached the
edge of the ditch, there to meet a more certain destruction. In
a third but unavailing attempt to lead up their troops, Generals
Gibbs and Kean were severely wounded, the former mortally.

The field of battle now exhibited a scene of extended carnage.
Seven hundred brave soldiers were sleeping in death, and one
thousand four hundred were wounded. Five hundred were made
prisoners — making a loss to the British, on this memorable day,
of near three thousand men. The Americans lost in the engage-
ment only seven killed, and six wounded.

The enemy now sullenly retired, and, on the night of the 18th,
evacuated their camp, and, with great secrecy, embarked on
board their shipping.

54. The news of the victory at New Orleans spread
with haste through the United States, and soon after
was followed by the still more welcome tidings of a
treaty of peace, which was signed at Ghent, on the 24th
of December, 1814. On the 17th of February, this
treaty was ratified by the president and senate.

Upon the subjects for which the war had been professedly de-
clared, the treaty, thus concluded, was silent. It provided only
for the suspension of hostilities — the exchange of prisoners — the
restoration of territories and possessions obtained by the con-
tending powers, during the war — the adjustment of unsettled
boundaries — and for a combined effort to effect the entire aboli-
tion of traffic in slaves.

But whatever diversity of opinion had prevailed about the jus-
tice or policy of the war — or now prevailed about the merits of
the treaty — all parties welcomed the return of peace. The sol-
dier gladly exchanged the toils of the camp for the rest of his
home ; the mariner o/ice more spread his canvass to the wind,
and, fearless of molestation, joyfully stretched his way on the
ocean ; and the yeomanry of the land, unaccustomed to the din of
arms, gladly returned to their woated care of the field and the
flock.

55. The treaty with England was followed, on the
30th of June, 1815, by a treaty with the dey of Algiers,
concluded at Algiers, at that time, by William Shaler

322 period x.— 1809 to 1817

and Commodore Stephen Decatur, agents for the United

States.

The war, which thus ended by treaty, was commenced by the
dey himself, as early as the year 1812. At that time, the Ameri-
can consul, Mr. Lear, was suddenly ordered to depart from Al-
giers, on account of the arrival of a cargo of naval and military
stores, for the regency of Algiers, in fulfilment of treaty stipula-
tions, which, the dey alleged, were not such, in quantity or quali-
ty, as he expected. At the same time, depredations were com-
menced upon our commerce. Several American vessels were
captured and condemned, and their crews subjected to slavery.

Upon a representation of the case, by the president, to con-
gress, that body formally declared war against the dey in March,
boon after, an American squadron sailed for the Mediterranean,
captured an Algerine brig, and a fort}'-four gun frigate ; and, at
length, appeared before Algiers.

The respectability of the American force, added to the two im-
portant victories already achieved, had prepared the way for the
American coirmiissioners to dictate a treaty, upon such a basis as
they pleased. Accordingly, 1he model of a treat}r was sent to
the dey, who signed it. By this treaty, the United States were
exempted from paying tribute in future ; captured property was
to be restored by the dey ; prisoners to be delivered up without
ransom, &c. &c.

56. The treaty with Great Britain, which ended the
war, left the subject of commercial intercourse between
the two nations to future negotiation. In the summer
following .the close of the war, plenipotentiaries, respec-
tively appointed by the two countries for that purpose,
met at London, and, on the 3d of July, signed " a con-
vention, by which to regulate the commerce between the
territories of the United States and of his Britannic
majesty."

This convention provided for a reciprocal liberty of commerce
between the two countries — for an equalization of duties on im-
portations and exportations from either country to the other — and
for the admission of American vessels to the principal settle-
ments of the British dominions in the East Indies, viz. Madras,
Calcutta, Bombay, &c. Of this convention, the president spoke
in terms of approbation., in his message to congress"; but by a
large portion of the community it was received with coldness,
from an apprehension that it would operate unfavorably to
America, and would seriously abridge her commerce. The con-
vention was to be binding-only for four years.

madison's administration. 323

57. By the second article of the treaty with Great
Britain, it was agreed, that all vessels, taken by either
power, within twelve days from the exchange of ratifica-
tions, between twenty-three degrees and fifty degrees of
north latitude, should be considered lawful prizes. A
longer period was stipulated for more distant latitudes.
Within the time limited by this article, several actions took
place, and several vessels of various descriptions were
captured by each of the belligerents. The frigate Presi-
dent was taken January 15th, 1815, by a British squad-
ron; the British ships Cyane, Levant, and Penguin,
were captured by the Americans.

58. The attention of congress during their session in
1815 — 16, was called to a bill, which had for its object
the incorporation of a national bank. In the discussion
which followed, much diversity of opinion was found to
prevail, not only as to the constitutional power of con-
gress to establish such an institution, but also as to the
principles upon which it should be modelled. After
weeks of animated debate, a bill, incorporating the
" Bank of the United States," with a capital of thirty-
five millions of dollars, passed, and on Wednesday,
April 10th, received the signature of the president.

Of the stock of the bank, seven millions were to be subscribed
by the United States, the remaining twenty-eight by individuals.
The affairs of the corporation were to be managed by twenty-five
directors, five of whom were to be chosen by the president, with
the advice and consent of the senate ; the remainder to be elect
ed by the stockholders, at the banking-house in Philadelphia.
The charter of the bank is to continue in force until the 3d of
March, 1836.

59. In December, 1816, Indiana became an indepen
dent state, and was received into the Union.

Detached places in Indiana were settled by the French, up-
wards of a century ago. The exact period, at which the first
settlement was made, is uncertain.

In 17C3, the territory was ceded by France to England. By
the treaty of Greenville, in 1795, the United States obtained of
the Indians several small grants of land within this territory ;
and, in subsequent years, still more extensive tracts. During

824 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

the war with England, which broke out in 1812, Indiana was
the scene of many Indian depredations, and of many unusually
severe battles between the hostile tribes and the troops of the
United States. Until 1801, Indiana formed a part of the great
north-western territory; but, at that date, it was erected into a
territorial government, with the usual powers and privileges. In
December, 1815, the inhabitants amounting to sixty thousand,
the legislature petitioned congress for admission into the Union,
and the privilege of forming a state constitution. A bill for thia
purpose passed congress, in April, 1816; a convention of dele-
gates met in conformity to it, by which a constitution was adopt-
ed, and Indiana became an independent state, and a member of
the Union, in December following.

60. 1817. On Wednesday, February 12th, the votes
for Mr. Madison's successor were counted in the pres-
ence of both houses of congress, when it appeared that
James Monroe was elected president, and Daniel D.
Tompkins vice-president of the United States, for the
four years from and after the 4th of the ensuing March.

NOTES.

61. Manners. The only noticeable change of man-
ners, which seems to have taken place during this pe-
riod, arose from the spirit of pecuniary speculation,
which pervaded the country during the war. Money
was borrowed with facility, and fortunes were often
made in a day. Extravagance and profligacy were, to
some extent, the consequence. The return of peace,
and the extensive misfortunes which fell upon every part
of the community, counteracted these vices, and restored
more sober and industrious habits.

62. Religion. During this period, extensive revivals
of religion prevailed, and liberal and expanded plans
were devised and commenced for the promotion of Chris-
tianity. Several theological institutions were founded,
missionary and Bible societies were established, and a
great call for ministers of the gospel was heard.

63. Trade and Commerce. During this period,
trade and commerce were crippled by foreign restric-

madison's administration. 325

tions, our own acts of non-intercourse, and, at length,
by the war with England. During this war, our carry-
ing trade was destroyed ; nor was it restored by the
peace of 1815.

On the return of peace, immense importations were
made from England, the country being destitute of Eng-
lish merchandise. The market was soon glutted, prices
fell, and extensive bankruptcies were the consequence.

64. Agriculture. Agriculture, during this period,
cannot be said to have made great advances.

An excessive disposition in the people for trade and specula-
tion, drew off the attention of the more intelligent and active
part of the community, and directed much of the capital of the
country to other objects. Upon the return of peace, however,
when mercantile distresses overspread the land, agriculture was
again resorted to, as one of the surest means of obtaining a live-
lihood. Men of capital, too, turned their attention to farming;
agricultural societies \Vere established in all parts of the country ;
more enlightened methods of culture were introduced, and agri-
culture became not only one of the most profitable, but one of
the most popular objects of pursuit.

65. Arts and Manufactures. During the war
which occurred in this period, the intercourse witn
England, and other places, being stopped, the country
was soon destitute of those articles which had been sup-
plied by English manufactories. Accordingly, the peo-
ple began to manufacture for themselves. Extensive
manufacturing establishments were started for almost
every sort of merchandise. Such was their success at
the outset, that an immense capital was soon invested
in them, and the country began to be supplied with
almost every species of manufacture from our own es-
tablishments. After the peace, the country being inun-
dated with British goods, these establishments suffered
the severest embarrassments, and many of them were
entirely broken down. A considerable portion of them,
however, were maintained, and continued to flourish.

66. Population. At the expiration of Mr. Madison's
term of office, in 1817, the number of inhabitants in

326 period x.— 1809 to 1817.

the United States was about nine millions five hundred
thousand.

67. Education. The pecuniary embarrassments
experienced throughout the country, during the latter
part of this period, sensibly affected some institutions
devoted to science and benevolence, especially those
which depend, in part, upon the yearly contributions of
the patrons of learning and religion, for the means of
support. In several of the higher seminaries, the num
ber of students was, for a time, diminished. Neverthe
less, parochial schools, academies, and colleges, upor
the whole, continued to increase, and to qualify man]
for the common and higher professions of life.

A theological institution was established at Princeton, New
Jersey, in 1812, by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church. In 1821, the theological seminary of the Associate
Reformed Church, in New York, was united to that of Prince
ton, and its library, consisting of four thousand volumes, which
cost seventeen thousand dollars, was transferred to the latter
place. This seminary has three professors, and, in 1821, had
seventy-three students.

During the same year, Hamilton College was incorporated at
Clinton, New York : it has been liberally patronized by th«
legislature, and by individuals.

UNITED STATES

PERIOD XI.

DISTINGUISHED FOR MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President 3fonroct
1817, to March, 1825.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1817, Mr. Monroe took

the oath prescribed by the constitution, and entered upon

the duties of president of the United States.

The condition of the country, on the accession of Mr. Monroe
to the pi*esidency, was, in several respects, more prosperous and
happy, than on the accession of his predecessor. Not only had
'war ceased, and the political asperity excited by it given place
to better feelings, but efforts were made, in every section of the
Union, to revive those plans of business which the war had nearly
annihilated. The country had suffered too much, however, tore-
gain immediately its former prosperity. Commerce was far from
being flourishing ; a considerable part of the legitimate trade was
in the hands of foreigners ; many ships were lying unemployed,
and the ship-building in many ports had nearly ceased. The
manufacturing establishments, which had not been entirely
broken down, were sustaining a precarious existence. Foreign
merchandise was inundating the country; and the specie, bor-
rowed in Europe for the national bank, at an excessive premium,
as well as that which was previously in the country, was rapidly
leaving it to pay the balance of trade against us. In his inau-
gural address, however, the president spoke in animating terma
of the happy state of the country, and of its prospects of regain-
ing, at no distant period, that measure of prosperity, which, in
former years, it had enjoyed.

2. The senate having been convened at the same
time, a cabinet was formed under the new administra*

328 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

tion. The department of state was intrusted to Mr
Adams. Mr. Crawford was continued in the treasury
Mr. Calhoun was appointed secretary of war, and Smith
Thompson was placed over the department of the navy.

3. In the summer and autumn following his inaugu-
ration, the president mad^ « tour through the northern
and eastern states of the Union.

The objects of this tour were connected with the national in-
terests. Congress had appropriated large sums of money for the
fortification of the sea-coast, and inland frontiers, for the estab-
lishment of naval docks, and for increasing the navy. The su-
perintendence of these works belonged to the president. Solici-
tous to discharge his duty, in reference to them, with judgment,
fidelity, and economy, he was induced to visit the most impor-
tant points along the sea-coast and in the interior, from a con-
viction of being better able to direct, in reference to them, with
the knowledge derived from personal observation, than by meana
of information communicated to him by others.

4. On the 11th of December, the state of Mississippi
was acknowledged by congress as sovereign and inde-
pendent, and was admitted to the Union.

The first European who visited the present state of Mississippi,
appears to have been Ferdinand de Soto, a native of Badajoz, in
Spain, who landed on the coast of Florida on the 25th of May,
1539. He spent three years in the country, searching for gold,
but at length died, and was buried on the banks of the Missis-
sippi, May, 1542.

In 1683, M. de Salle descended the Mississippi, and gave the
name of Louisiana to the country. In consequence of this, the
French claimed to have jurisdiction over it. In 1716, they formed
a settlement at the Natchez, and built a fort, which they named
Rosalie. Other settlements were effected in subsequent years.
The French settlements we*Pe, however, seriously disturbed by
the Indians, particularly by the Natchez, once the most powerful
of all the southern tribes.

The French retained an acknowledged title to the country on
the east side of the Mississippi, until the treaty of 1763, when
they ceded their possessions east of that river to the English.
By the treaty of 1763, Great Britain relinquished the Floridas to
Spain without specific boundaries ; and at the same time ceded
to the United States all the country north of the thirty-first de-
gree of latitude. The Spaniards retained possession of the
Natchez, and the ports north of the thirty-first degree, until 1798,
when they finally abandoned them to the United States.

In the year 1800, the territory between the Mississippi and the

monroe's administration. 329

western boundary of Georgia, was erected into a distinct terri-
torial government. By treaty at Fort Adam, in 1801, the Choc-
taw Indians relinquished to the United States a large body of
land, and other cessions have since been made. On the 1st of
March, 1817, congress authorized the people of the western part
of Mississippi territory to form a constitution and state govern-
ment. A convention met in July, 1817, by which a constitution
was formed, "and in December following, Mississippi was admit-
ted into the Union as a separate state.

5. In the course of the same month, an expedition
which had been set on foot by a number of adventurers
from different countries, against East and West Florida,
was terminated by the troops of the United States.
These adventurers claimed to be acting under the au-
thority of some of the South American colonies, and
had formed an establishment at Amelia Island, a Spanish
province, then the subject of negotiation between the
United States and Spain. Their avowed object being
an invasion of the Floridas, and of course an invasion
of a part of the United States, the American government
deemed itself authorized, without designing any hostili-
ty to Spain, to take possession of Amelia Island, their
head-quarters.

A similar establishment had previously been formed at Gal-
vezton, a small island on the coast of the Texas, claimed by the
United States. From both of these places privateers were fitted
out, which greatly annoyed our regular commerce. Prizes were
sent in, and, by a pretended court of admiralty, condemned and
sold. Slaves, in great numbers, were shipped through these
islands to the United States, and through the same channel ex-
tensive clandestine importations of goods were made. Justly
apprehending the results of these establishments, if suffered to
proceed unmolested, the executive took early measures to sup--
press them. Accordingly, a naval force, with the necessary
troops, was despatched, under command of Captains Henly and
Bankhead, to whom Amelia Island was surrendered, on the 24th
of December, without the effusion of blood. The suppression
©f Galvezton followed soon after.

G. Several bills of importance passed congress, dur-
ing their session, in the winter of 1817-1818; a bill
allowing to the members of the senate and house of rep-
resentatives the sum of eight dollars per day, during

330 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

their attendance ; a second, in compliance with the re*
commendation of the president, abolishing the internal
duties ; and a third, providing, upon the same recom-
mendation, for the indigent officers and soldiers of the
revolutionary army.

7. In April, 1818, Illinois adopted a state consti-
tution, and in December following was admitted as a
member of the Union.

Illinois derives its name from its principal river, which, in the
language of the Indians, signifies the river of men. The first
settlements, like those of Indiana, were made by the French, and
were the consequence of the adventurous enterprises of M. de
la Salle, in search of the Mississippi. The first settlements were
the villages of Kaskaskia and Cahokia. In the beginning of
the eighteenth century, the settlements of Illinois were repre-
sented to have been in a flourishing condition. But subsequent-
ly they in a great measure declined.

From the beginning to the middle of the eighteenth century,
little was heard of the settlements of the French on the banks
of the Illinois. About 1749, the French began to fortify the
Wabash and Illinois, in order to resist the British. In 1762, all
the country to the east of the Mississippi was ceded to the latter
power, and consequently Illinois passed under the British do-
minion. At the peace of 1783, Great Britain renounced its
claims of sovereignty over this country, as well a« over the United
States. Virginia, however, and some other states, claimed the
whole country north and west of the Ohio ; but at the instance
of congress, a cession of these claims was made to the general
government. Illinois remained a part of Indiana until 1309,
when a distinct territorial government was established for it. In
1818, the people formed a constitution, and it is now one of the
United States.

8. Early after the conclusion of this session of con-
gress, the president, in pursuance of his determination
to visit such parts of the United States as were most
exposed to the naval and military forces of an enemy,
prepared to survey the Chesapeake bay, and the country
lying on its extensive shores.

In the month of May, he left Washington, accompanied by
the secretary of war and the secretary of the navy, with othei
gentlemen of distinction. On his arrival at Annapolis, the pres-
ident and his suite minutely examined the waters contiguous, in
reference to the»r fitness for a naval depot. Embarking at this

monroe's administration. 331

place on board a vessel, he further examined the coast, and
thence proceeded to Norfolk. Having at length accomplished
the principal object of his tour, in the examination of the Chesa-
peake bay, he returned to Washington, June 17th, through the
interior of Virginia. The respectful and affectionate demonstra-
tions of attachment paid to him during his northern tour were re-
newed in this.

9. On the 27th of May, 1818, a treaty, concluded with
Sweden, at Stockholm, on the 4th of September, 1816,
by Mr. Rus-sel, minister plenipotentiary to that court,
was ratified by the president and senate, on the part of
the United States. The same was ratified by the king
of Sweden on the 24th of the following July.

This treaty mm vided for maintaining peace and friendship be-
tween the two countries — reciprocal liberty of commerce — equali-
zation of duties, &c. &c. The treaty was to continue in force
for eight years from the exchange of ratifications.

10. During the year 1818, a war was carried on be-
tween the Seminole Indians and the United States,
which terminated in the complete discomfiture of the
former.

The Indians, denominated Seminole Indians, inhabited a tract
of country partly within the limits of the United States, but a
greater part of which lied within the boundaries of the Floridas.
Not a few Creeks, dissatisfied with the treaty of 1814, (see Period
X. Sec. 39,) had iled to the Seminoles, carrying with them feel-
ings of hostility against the United States.

These feelings were much strengthened by foreign white
emissaries, who had taken up their residence among them foi the
purpose of trade. At length, several outrages being committed
by the Indians upon the border inhabitants of the United States,
the secretary of war ordered Gen. Gaines to remove, at his dis-
cretion, such Indians as were still on the7 lands ceded to the Uni-
ted States by the Creeks in 1814.

The execution of this order roused the Indians, who, in great
numbers, invested Fort Scott, where Gen. Gaines was confined,
with 600 men.

Information of this state of things being communicated to the
department of war. Gen. Jackson was ordered. December 26th, to
take the field, and directed, if he should deem the force with
Gen. Gaines, amounting in all to 1800 men, insufficient to cope
with the enemy, " to call on the executives of the adjacent statea
for such an additional militia force as he might deem requisite. ''

332 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

On the receipt of this order, Gen. Jackson prepared to compiy ,
but, instead of calling upon the executives of the neighboring
states, especially upon the governor of Tennessee, who lived
near his residence, he addressed a circular to the patriots of West
Tennessee, inviting one thousand of them to join his standard.

This call being promptly obeyed, Gen. Jackson, with these
troops and a body of friendly Creeks, entered upon the Seminole
war.

Deeming it necessary, for the subjugation of the Seminoles, to
enter Florida, Gen. Jackson marched upon St. Marks, a feeble
Spanish garrison, in which some Indians had taken refuge. Of
this garrison, Gen. Jackson quietly took possession, and occupied
it as an American post. At St. Marks was found Alexander
Arbuthnot, who was taken prisoner and put in confinement. At
the same time were taken two Indian chiefs, one of whom pre-
tended to possess the spirit of prophecy ; they were hung with-
out trial. St. Marks being garrisoned by American troops, the
army marched to Suwaney river, on which they found a large
Indian village, which was consumed, after which the army re-
turned to St. Marks, bringing with them Robert C. Ambrister,
who had been taken prisoner on their march to Suwaney. Dur-
ing the halt of the army for a few days at St. Marks, a general
court martial was called, before which charges were, made against
Ambrister and Arbuthnot. Both were adjudged guilty, and the
former was sentenced to be shot — the latter to be hung. Subse-
quently, however, the sentence in respect to Ambrister was re-
considered, and he was sentenced to be whipped and confined to
hard labor. This decision Gen. Jackson reversed, and ordered
both to be executed according to the first sentence of the court.

At St. Marks, Gen. Jackson, being informed that the Spanish
governor of Pensacola was favoring the Indians, took up hia
march for the capital of that province, before which, after a
march of twenty days, he appeared. This place was taken with
scarcely a show of resistance — a new government was establish-
ed for the province, the powers of which were vested partly in
military officers, and partly in citizens of the province. Gen.
Jackson now announced to the secretary that the Seminole war
was closed, and returned to his residence at Nashville. Some
time after, the American executive, deeming the longer posses-
sion of the Spanish forts unnecessary to the peace of the country,
and inconsistent with good faith to Spain, directed them to be
restored, and accompanied the restoration with the reasons which
had led to their occupation.

The measures adopted by Gen. Jackson in the prosecution of
this war — particularly his appeal to the people of West Tennes-
see— his conduct in relation to the trial and execution of Arbuth-
not and Ambrister — and his occupation of St. Marks and Pensa^
eola — excited strong sensations in the bosoms of a considerable

wonroe's administration. 3*53

portion of the American people. Daring the session of congress
in the. winter of 1818 — 1819, these subjects were extensively and
eloquently debated. By the military committee of the house, a
report was presented, censuring the conduct of Gen. Jackson ;
but, after an elaborate examination of the case, the house, }y a
majority of one hundred and eight to sixty-two, refused its con-
currence. Towards the close of the session, a report unfavorable
to Gen. Jackson was also brought forward in the senate, but no
vote of censure or resolution was attached, and no discussion of
its merits was had.

11. On the 28th of January, 1819, a convention be-
tween Great Britain and the United States, concluded
at London, October 20th, 1818, and ratified by the
Prince Regent on the 2d of November following, was
ratified by the president of the United States.

By the first article of this convention, the citizens of the Uni-
ted States have liberty, in common with the subjects of Great
Britain, to take fish on the southern, western, and northern coast
of Newfoundland, &c. The second article establishes the north-
ern boundaries of the United States from the Lake of the Woods
to the Stony Mountains. By the fourth article, the commercial
convention between the two countries, concluded at London, in
1315, is extended for the term often years longer, &c. &c.

12. On the 22d of February, following, a treaty was
concluded at Washington, by John Quincy Adams and
Luis de Onis, by which East and West Florida, with all
the islands adjacent, &,c, were ceded by Spain to the
United States.

By this treaty, the western boundary between the United
States and Spain was settled. A sum not exceeding five millions*
of dollars is to be paid by the United States out of the proceeds of
sales of lands in Florida, or in stock, or money, to citizens of
the United States, on account of Spanish spoliations and injuries.
To liquidate the claims, a board was to be constituted by the gov-
ernment of the United States, of American citizens, to consist of
three commissioners, who should report within three years.

13. On the 2d of March, 1819, the government of

the Arkansas Territory was organized by an act of

congress.

The earliest settlement within the limits of the territory of
Arkansas, was made by the Chevalier de Tonte, in 1G85, at th<

334 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

Indian village of Arkansas, situated on the river of that name
Emigrants from Canada afterwards arrived, but the progress of
settlement was slow. Upon the cession of Louisiana to the Uni-
ted States, the ceded territory was divided into two parts — the
Territory of Orleans, lying south of latitude thirty degrees, and
the District of. Louisiana, comprehending all the tract of country
between the" Mississippi and the Pacific Ocean. In March, 1805,
the latter country was denominated the Territory of Louisiana.
In 1812, this territory was constituted a territorial government,
by the name of the Territory of Missouri. In March, 1819, the
inhabitants of the northern parts were formed into a distinct dis-
trict, by the name of Missouri, and soon after the southern was
formed into a territorial government by the name of Arkansas.
In December, 1819, an election for a delegate to congress was
held for the first time.

14. During the following summer, 1819, the president
visited the southern section of the country, having in
view the same great national interests, which had prompt-
ed him in his previous tour to the north.

In this tour the president visited Charleston, Savannah, and
Augusta; from this latter place he proceeded to Nashville,
through the Cherokee nation, and thence to Louisville and Lex-
ington, Kentucky, whence he returned to the seat of govern
ment early in August.

15. On the 14th of December following, a resolution
passed congress, admitting Alabama into the Union/ on
an equal footing with the original states.

Alabama, though recently settled, appears to have been visited
by Ferdinand de Soto in 1539. Some scattered settlements were
made within the present.state of Mississippi before the American
revolution ; but Alabama continued the hunting ground of sav-
ages until a much later period.

After the peace of 1783, Georgia laid claim to this territory, and
exercised jurisdiction over it until the beginning of the present
century. In 1795, an act passed the legislature of Georgia, by
which twenty-five millions of acres of its western territory were
sold to companies for five hundred thousand dollars, and the pur-
chase money was paid into their treasury. The purchasers of
these lands soon after sold them at advanced prices. The sale of
the territory excited a warm opposition in Georgia, and, at a sub-
sequent meeting of the legislature, the transaction was impeach-
ed, on the ground of bribery, corruption, and unconstitutionality.
The records respecting the sale were ordered to be burnt, and the
five hundred thousand dollars to be refunded to the purchasers

monroe's administration. 335

Those who had acquired titles of the original purchasers instituted
Bints in the federal courts.

In 1802, however, Georgia ceded to the United States all her
western territory, for one million two hundred and fifty thousand
dollars. On this event, the purchasers of the Yazoo land pe-
titioned congress for redress and compensation. After consider-
able opposition, an act passed for reimbursing them with funded
stock, called the Mississippi stock. In 1800, the territory which
now forms the states of Mississippi and Alabama, was erected
into a territorial government. In 1817, Mississippi territory was
divided, and the western portion of it was authorized to form a
state constitution. The eastern portion was then formed into a
territorial government, and received the name of Alabama. In
July, 1819, a convention of delegates met at Huntsville, and
adopted a state constitution, which being approved by congress
in December following, the state was declared to be henceforth
one of the United States.

16. In the ensuing year, March 3d, 1820, Maine
became an independent state, and a member of the Fed-
era] Union.

The separation of the District of Maine from Massachusetts, and
its erection into an independent state, had been frequently at-
tempted without success. In October, 1785, a convention met at
Portland, for the purpose of considering the subject. In the suc-
ceeding year, the question was submitted to the people of Maine,
to be decided in town-meetings, when it was found that a ma-
jority of freemen were against the measure. The subject was
renewed in 1802, when a majority appeared averse to a separa-
tion. In 1819, an act passed the general court of Massachusetts,
for ascertaining the wishes of the people ; in conformit}' to which,
a vote was taken in all the towns. A large majority were found
in favor of a separation. A convention was called, and a consti-
tution adopted, which being approved, Massachusetts and Maine
amicably separated, the latter taking her proper rank, as one cf
the United States.

17. On the 5th of March, 1821, Mr. Monroe, who
had been re-elected to the presidency, took the usual
oath of office. The re-election of Monroe was nearly
unanimous. Mr. Tompkins was again elected vice-
president.

18. August 10th, 1821, the president, by his procla-
mation, declared Missouri to be an independent state,
and that it was admitted into the Federal Union.

336 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

The first permanent settlements in Missouri appear to hav»
been made at St. Genevieve and New Bourbon, which were
founded soon after the peace of 1663. in the succeeding year,
St. Louis, the capital of the state, was commenced. In 1762,
Louisiana, and Missouri of course, were secretly ceded by France
to Spain ; but the latter did not attempt to take possession of the
country until some years after.

Missouri remained in possession of Spain, through the war of
the revolution, until the cession of Louisiana to France, in 1801,
by which latter power it was ceded to the United States in 1603.

Upon the cession of Louisiana to the United States, the dis-
trict which now forms the State of Louisiana, was separated from
the territory, and made a distinct government, by the name of
the Territory of Orleans. In 1811, the territory of Orleans be-
came a state, by the name of Louisiana. The remaining part of
the original province of Louisiana, extending to the Pacific, was
erected into a territorial government, and called Missouri. In
1818-19, application was made to congress, by the people of this
territory, to form a state constitution. A bill was accordingly
introduced for the purpose, a provision of which forbade slavery
or involuntary servitude. The bill, with this provision, passed the
house of representatives, but was rejected in the senate-, and, in
consequence of this disagreement, the measure, for the time,
failed. h\ the session of 1819-20, the bill was revived ; and, af-
ter long and animated debates, a compromise was effected, by
which slavery was to be tolerated in Missouri, and forbidden in
all that part of Louisiana, as ceded by France, lying north of
36° 30' north latitude, except so much as was included within
the limits of the state. In the mean time, the people of Missouri
had formed a state constitution. When this constitution wag
presented to congress, in 1820-21, a provision in it, which re-
quired the legislature to pass laws " to prevent free negroes and
mulattoes from coming to, and settling in, the state," was stren-
uously opposed, on the ground that it violated the rights of such
persons of that description as were citizens of any of the United
States. The contest occupied a great part of the session, and it
was finally determined, by a small majority, that Missouri should
be admitted, upon the fundamental condition, that the contested
clause should not be construed to authorize the passage of
any laws, excluding citizens of other states from enjoying the
privileges to which they are entitled by the constitution of the
United States. It was also provided, that if the legislature of
Missouri should, by a solemn public act, previously to the 4th
Monday of November, 1821, declare the assent of the state to
this fundamental condition, the president should issue his procla-
mation, declaring the admission complete. On the 24th of June,
1821, the legislature of Missouri assented to the fundamental

MONROE S ADMINISTRATION. 337

condition ; and, on the 10th of August following, the president'8
proclamation was issued, declaring the admission complete.*

19. The first session of the seventeenth congress
commenced on the third of December. The affairs of
the nation were generally prosperous, and there seemed
to be no obstacle in the way of wise and prudent meas-
ures. A spirit of jealousy, however, obtruded itself
upon their deliberations, by wJvch soin beneficial
measures were defeated, and the business 01 the session
was unnecessarily delayed and neglected. Several acts
of importance, however, were passed, concerning navi-
gation and commerce ; relieving still further the indi-
gent veterans of the revolution ; and fixing the ratio
between population and representation, at one repre-
sentative for every forty thousand inhabitants.

The constitution has not limited the number, but has only
provided that no more than one shall be sent for thirty thousand
inhabitants. Public opinion seems generally to have decided
that a numerous representation is an evil, by which not only the
business of the nation is neglected in the conflicts of individual
opinions, but the people are subjected to an unnecessary ex
pense. The congress that signed the Declaration of Independ
ence consisted but of fifty-six members; and no deliberative
assembly excelled them in industry and public virtue. The con-
gress that formed the confederation consisted of forty-eight ;
that which formed the constitution consisted of only thirty-
nine, and the first congress under that constitution, of but sixty-
five. After the first census, the appointment being one for
every thirty-three thousand inhabitants, the house consisted of
one hundred and five representatives. The same apportionment
being continued under the second census, there were one hun-
dred and forty-one representatives. The apportionment under
the third census allowed one for thirty-five thousand ; and the
house consisted of one hundred and eighty-seven members. The
ratio fixed upon by the congress of 18*22-3, was one for forty
thousand ; and the number of representatives was two hundred
and twelve.

20. During the above session of congress, March
31, 1822, a territorial government was established foi
Florida

* American Atlas— Philadelphia.

338 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

The name of Florida was formerly given to an immense re-
gion of country discovered by Cabot in 1497. The first visitant
to the actual territory of Florida was Ponce de Leon, who landed
on Easter day, 1512. Navigators from several countries visited
it, and various European sovereigns attempted to appropriate the
country to themselves.

Spain, however* held possession of it until 1763, when it was
ceded to Great Britain. In May, 1781, Don Galvez captured
Pensacoia, and soon afterwards completed the conquest of the
whole of West Florida, which remained in possession of Spain
until 1783, when Great Britain relinquished both provinces of
Florida to Spain.

By the treaty of France, in 1803, which ced«id Louisiana to
the United Slates, it was declared to be ceded with the same
extent that it had in the hands of Spain, when ceded to France.
By virtue of this declaration, the United States claimed the
country west of the Perdido river, and, in 1811, took possession
of it, except the town and fort of Mobile, which were surren-
dered the following year. In 1814, a British expedition having
been fitted out against the United States, from Pensacoia, Gen.
Jackson took possession of the town, but, having no authority
to hold it, returned to Mobile. The Seminole Indians, with whom
the United States were at war, residing partly within the limits
of Florida, ariu making their incursions thence without restraint
from the Spaniards, it became necessary to cross the territorial
line to chastise them. Subsequently, Gen. Jackson took posses-
sion of Fort St. Marks and Pensacoia, which the American troops
held till November, 1818, when they were restored to Spain. In
1819, a transfer of the whoio province was made by treaty to the
United States, and, after many vexatious delays, the treaty was
ratified by Spain in October, 1820, and finally by the United
States in the month of February, 1821. Possession was deliver-
ed to Gen. Jackson, as commissioner of the United States, in
July, 1821.

21. In the course of the summer of 1824, an event
occurred, which caused the highest sensations of joy
throughout the Union. This was the arrival of the Mar-
quis de Lafayette, the friend and ally of the Americans
during the former war with Great Britain, and who em-
inently contributed, by his fortune, influence, skill, and
bravery, to achieve the glorious objects of their revolu-
tionary struggle.

The visit of Lafayette to the United States occupied about a
year ; during which he visited each of the twenty-four states,
and was every where hailed as a father. When the time ar-

Monroe's administration. 339

rived which he "had fixed as the termination of his visit, it was
thought most fitting that his departure from the country should
take place from the capital. A frigate was prepared at that
place, and- named, in compliment to him, the Brandywine, to
transport him to his native country.

On the 7th of September, about noon, he entered the spacious
hall in the president's mansion, where he was addressed by the
chief magistrate of the nation in terms manly, patriotic, and af-
fectionate. In a similar manner Lafayette replied, concluding
as follows : — " God bless you, sir, and all who surround us. God
bless the American people, each of their states, and the federal
government. Accept this patriotic farewell of an overflowing
heart; such will be its last throb when it ceases to beat."

Then, taking an affectionate leave of each individual present,
the general left the hospitable mansion of the president. He was
attended to the vessel by the whole population of the district.
All business was suspended, and the vast multitude which lined
the shores, witnessed his embarkation with a deep silence, highly
indicative of the feelings that the American people cherished
towards Lafayette. In passing Mount Vernon, he landed to pay
a farewell visit to the tomb of Washington, whence re-embark-
ing, a prosperous voyage soon safely landed him on his own pa-
ternal soil.

It may here be added, that, during the visit of this illustrious
general, congress passed a bill appropriating the sum of two hun-
dred thousand dollars, and a complete township of land, as a par-
tial remuneration of services rendered by him during the revo-
lutionary struggle of the country.

22. The administration of Mr. Monroe closed on the
3d of March. During his presidency, the country en-
joyed a uniform state of peace and prosperity. By his
prudent management of the national affairs, both foreign
and domestic, he eminently contributed to the honor and
happiness of millions, and retired from office enjoying
the respect, and affection, and gratitude, of all who were
able duly to appreciate the blessings of having a wise
ruler.

23. The electors of a successor to Mr. Monroe hav-
ing failed to make a choice, the election devolved on
the house of representatives. On the 9th of February,
1825, that body proceeded to the discharge of this duty,
when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was elect-
ed president of the United States, for the four years

1M0 period xi.— 1817 to 1825.

from and after the 4th of the ensuing March. John C
Calhoun, of South Carolina, had been chosen vice-pres*
ident, by the electoral colleges.

The subject of a successor to Mr. Monroe was early introduced
to the notice of the public, and the excitement of the several par-
ties in the United States was both fostered and increased by the
newspapers and public journals of the day. Besides Mr. Adams,
Mr. Crawford, secretary of the treasury, Mr. Clay, speaker of
the house of representatives, and Gen. Jackson, a senator, were
candidates for the office ; each of whom had their respective
friends in the country, and among the legislatures of the states
nearly nil of which, by a public vote, declared in favor of some
one of the candidates. On counting the votes of the electors, it
appeared that 84 were in favor of Mr. Adams, 99 for Gen. Jack
son, 41 for Mr. Crawford, and 37 for Mr. Clay Notwithstanding
Gen. Jackson had the greatest number of votes from the elec-
toral colleges, the house of representatives, voting by states,
elected Mr. Adams. The result of the balloting was, for Mr.
Adams, 13 states; for Mr. Jackson, 7 states; for Mr. Crawford,
4 states. By the constitution, only the three highest on the list
could be candidates for the office in the house of representatives.
Mr. Clay, therefore, was not voted for; but is supposed, by his
influence, to have determined the question in favor of Mr. Adams,
in opposition to Mr. Crawford, Avho had been nominated by a
caucus at Washington ; and to Gen. Jackson, who had received
the highest vote by the electors.

UNITED STATES.'

PERIOD XII.

DISTINGUISHED FOR ADAMs's ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Adams%
1825, to the Inauguration of Andrew Jackson, as
President of the United States, 1829.

Sec. 1. On tiie 4th of March, Mr. Adams, in the pres-
ence of the senate, house of representatives, heads of
department, foreign ministers, and a numerous assem-
blage of citizens and strangers, took the oath prescribed
by the constitution, and entered upon the duties of presi-
dent of the United States.

2. On the day of Mr. Adams's induction into office,
the senate was convened by the executive, for the pur-
pose of confirming nominations to office under the new
administration. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was appoint
ed secretary of state ; Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania,
secretary of the treasury ; and James Barbour, of Vir-
ginia, secretary of war.

3. About this time, a controversy arose between the
national government and the executive of Georgia, in
relation to certain lands held by the Creek nation, but
which that state claimed as belonging to herself. In
the progress of this controversy, so much warmth was
manifested, both by Georgia and some of the neighbor-
ing states, that much anxiety was felt by persons in dif*

342 - period xii.—- 1825 to 1829.

ferent parts of the Union as to the consequences. The
prompt and vigilant measures of the national executive,
how ver, sanctioned as they ultimately were by congress,
settled the controversy without disturbing the peace of
the Union.

This controversy grew out of a compact between the general
government and the state of Georgia, in 1802. By that compact
the United States agreed, in consideration of Georgia relinquish-
ing her claim to the Mississippi territory, to extinguish, at the
national expense, the Indian title to the lands occupied by them
in Georgia, " whenever it could be peaceably done, upon reason-
able terms." Since making that agreement, the general govern-
ment had extinguished the Indian title to about fifteen millions
of acres, and had conveyed the same to the state of Georgia.
There still remained in that state exceeding nine millions of acres,
in possession of Indians, of which about five millions belonged
to the Cherokees, and the remainder to the Creek nation.

Shortly before the termination of Mr. Monroe's administration,
an effort had been made to effect a treaty with the Creeks for
their portion of the above lands. The Creeks, however, having
become more civilized, refused to alienate their territory, and
had even passed a law making it a capital offence to sell any
more land. No solicitations of the commissioners appointed to
purchase their lands, could induce them to consent, and, the
council breaking up, a majority of the chiefs took their depar-
ture. A few, however, who thought differently, remained, and
were induced to make a treaty, by which all the lands of the
Creek tribes in Georgia and Alabama were ceded to the United
States. This treaty was made the 12th of February, 1825, and was
transmitted to the senate, and sanctioned by that body on the 3d
of March, the last day of the session, without that examination
of the circumstances which it would have had, had it been trans-
mitted at an earlier period of the session.

When the news of" the ratification of this treaty arrived among
the Creeks, it produced great excitement. M'Intosh, the leader
and chief of the party that assented to it, and another chief, were
killed, and the treaty rejected.

In the mean time, the governor of Georgia, acting upon the
assumption that the treaty was valid, made provision to have the
lands surveyed, and distributed among the citizens by lottery.
To the Creeks the conduct of Governor Troup was especially ob-
noxious, and, a war being likely to be the consequence of meas-
ures pursued, the president directed Gen. Gaines to repair to
the country of the Creeks, to give them the necessary protection,
and directed Gov. Troup to suspend his contemplated measures
until the meeting of congress.

ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 343

Efforts, however, continued to be made to settle this difficulty
flpon amicable terms ; and at length, after a long negotiation
with a deputation from the Creek nation at Washington, the old
treaty was declared to be void, and a new one formed, by which
the Creeks were to retain all their lands in Alabama, and to re-
ceive $217,000, and a perpetual annuity of $'20,000 for their
Georgia territory. To the M'Intosh party the United States
agreed to pay $100,000, provided the party amounted to 3000 ,
and so in proportion for a smaller number. Moreover, a tract of
land beyond the Mississippi was to be provided for the accom-
modation of such as wished to remove, and the expense of re-
moval and the first year's subsistence to be borne by the United
States.

This treaty the senate ratified by a vote of 30 to 7. On the
passage of the bill making appropriation to carry into effect the
new treaty, the vote in the house of representatives stood 167 to
10. To the passage of the bill the Georgia delegation offered a
protest, which was suffered to be entered on the journal of the
house by a vote of 82 to 61.

The unanimity with which the conduct of the executive in the
settlement of this intricate and unpleasant controversy, was ap-
proved b}r congress, was as unexpected as it was satisfactory to
ihe people in every part of the country, except in the state of
Georgia, where strong and excited feelings powerfully tended to
prevent a fair and impartial consideration of the question.

4. The year 1825 was characterized by a spirit of
speculation, which manifested itself not only throughout
the United States, but also in Europe, and which ended
in the embarrassment and ruin of thousands both here
and in other countries.

The principal article of speculation was cotton, which rose, in
a few weeks, from 6d. to 16d. sterling. This increase of price
was partly owing to the small quantity then in the English mar-
ket, but more to a spirit of commercial gambling, which had in-
fected the whole commercial community. Coffee, spices, and other
West India produce, also rose with great rapidity. Stocks, both
public and private, exceeded all former prices. In a short time,
however, the fictitious wealth which the expansion of the bubbles
had created, suddenly disappeared, and the ruin of thousands
followed. In England, more extensive bankruptcies occurred
than had been known for many years, occasioning a universal
alarm and distrust. The public funds fell rapidly. Many of the
most eminent banking houses stopped payment, and the minis-
trv were called upon to devise measures for present relief to the

344 period xii.— -1825 to 1829.

intense pecuniary distress. The effects of these failures extend
ed to other countries, and, though not equal in degree, were feit
on the continent and in the United States.

5. On the 4th of July, 1826, occurred the 50th anni-
versary of American independence, which was celebrated
throughout the Union with many demonstrations of joy.
This day, rendered memorable by the event which it
celebrated, was made still more memorable, in the an-
nals of American history, by the death of the two ven-
erable ex-presidents, Adams and Jefferson.

6. On the 4th of December, 1827, the first meeting
of the twentieth congress commenced. The revision
of the tariff, with a view to afford adequate protection
to American manufactures, was by far the most interest-
ing subject which presented itself to the deliberations
of the legislature at this session. On the 22d of April,
a bill for that purpose passed the house of representatives,
and on the 13th of May, the senate, which, however, was
by no means conformable to the wishes of the advocates
of the protecting system.

In his annual report to the house, at the commencement of the
session, the secretary of the treasury, in a labored discussion,
maintained a system of protecting duties to be essential to the
prosperity and independence of the nation. The subject was
referred in the house to the committee on manufactures. The
chairman of that committee was Mr. Mallory, of Vermont, an
able and zealous advocate for the protecting system. A majority
of the committee was opposed to it, and a bill, such as the ma-
jority directed, was presented to the house on the 31st of Jan-
uary In regard to woollens, the duty on the manufacture, com-
pared to that on the raw material, placed the manufacturer in a
worse situation than under the tariff of 1824, and seemed likely
to destroy the establishments, and with them the production of
the raw material

Pending the discussion of this bill, meetings were held in va-
rious parts of the United States, to express the views of different
classes of the community upon the subject. To the principle of
protection the south was universally opposed, and generally im-
porting merchants throughout the country. In the east, north,
and west, the farmers, manufacturers, and mechanics, supported

ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 345

the principle of protection, but were opposed to many of the
leading features of the bill.

On the final passage of the bill, the ayes in the house were
105, noes 94 ; in the senate, ayes 26, noes 21. To the country
at large the measure gave little satisfaction ; and those for whose
benefit it was professedly enacted, predicting its short continu-
ance, slowly and cautiously adapted their business with a view
to avail themselves of its provisions.

7. During the year 1828, the approaching presiden-
tial election was the all-engrossing topic of political dis-
cussion. The two candidates were Mr. Adams and
Gen. Jackson. Their claims to the presidency were
urged by their respective parties by a zeal which led to
the most unwarrantable scrutiny of private life, and an
unjustifiable attack upon private character. The result
of the contest- was a large majority in the electoral col-
leges for Gen. Jackson ; 178 being for him, and only
83 for Mr. Adams.

The administration of Mr. Adams, from its very commence-
ment, met with a powerful opposition. The circumstance of his
not having been elected by the people, united to the small ma-
jority by which he was elected to his office in congress, was suf-
ficient to call forth loud complaints, on the part of his opponents,
and to justify, in their view, a more than usual watchfulness over
his administration. Great pains were early taken to render him
and his measures unpopular. The charge of a corrupt bargain
between the president and secretary of state continued to be per-
tinaciously adhered to, and to be republished from mouth to mouth.
The Panama mission was represented as a measure weak and
injudicious, and the failure to obtain a participation in the British
West India trade was averred to be in consequence of culpable
mismanagement. Besides, it was charged upon his administra-
tion, that it was wasteful and extravagant.

Whatever might be the injustice of these accusations, and of
a host of others, they were published abroad with the manifest
design of preventing Mr. Adams's re-election. With what effect
they were urged, the election of 1829 revealed. On canvassing
the votes of the electoral colleges, it was apparent that the friends
of Gen. Jackson had obtained as triumphant a victory, as those
of the existing administration had experienced a mortifying
defeat.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD XIII.

DISTINGUISHED FOR JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Jackson
1829, to the Inauguration of Martin Van Buren, ai
President of the United States, 1837.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1829, General Jackson
took the oath to support the Constitution, as prescribed
by that instrument, and entered upon the duties of
President of the United States.

2. President Jackson, immediately after his induction
into office, organized his cabinet, by nominating Martin
Van Buren, of New York, to be Secretary of State ;
Samuel D. Ingham, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the
Treasury; John H. Eaton, Secretary of War; John
Branch, of North Carolina, Secretary of the Navy.
John M. Berrien, of Georgia, was nominated Attorney
General, and William T. Barry, of Kentucky, Postmastei
General.

3. The condition of the United States, at this time,
was one of almost unexampled prosperity. The coun-
try was at peace with all nations. The national debt
was in a course of rapid diminution. The treasury had

jackson's administration. 347

within its vaults more than five millions of dollars.
The revenue was annually exceeding, by a large surplus,
the demands of the Government, and the several branches
of occupation — agriculture, commerce, and manufactures
— were in a highly flourishing state.

4. In his inaugural address, Gen. Jackson had ex-
pressed a determination early to betake himself to the
"task of reform;" and soon after the adjournment of the
senate, the promised work was commenced. Availing
himself of the right of the Executive to fill vacancies
occurring in the recess, shortly after the adjournment of
the senate, he removed the principal officers of the
treasury, the marshals and district attorneys in most of
the eastern, middle, and western states, the revenue
officers of the chief Atlantic ports, the greater part of
the receivers and registers in the land office, and effected
an equally radical change in the diplomatic corps.

A great change was also made in the post-office department — 491
postmasters being removed between the 4th of March, 1829, and the
22d of March, 1830.

During Gen. Washington's administration of eight years, there were
nine removals ; of these one was a defaulter.

In John Adams's administration of four years, there were ten remov-
als ; one of these was a defaulter.

In Thomas Jefferson's, of eight years, there were thirty-nine.

In James Madison's, of eight years, there were Jive removals ; of
which three were defaulters.

In James Monroe's, of eight years, there were nine removals ; of
these, one was for dealing in slaves, (Guinea,) two for failures, one for
insanity, one for misconduct, and one for quarrels with a foreign gov-
ernment.

In John Qumcy Adams's, there were hco removals, both for cause.

The removals made by President Jackson were strongly censured by
the opposers of the administration. He was charged with usurping an
authority not conferred by the constitution, which, it was contended,
only gave him the right to fill vacancies, either accidentally occurring,
or caused by some official misconduct. It was further urged, that no
preceding administration had made such radical changes ; and that
even if such removals might be regarded as constitutional, such a pre-
cedent was both dangerous and inexpedient.

On the other hand, the friends of the President justified his course.
They maintained that he was " solely invested with the right of re-
moval ; that it was a discretionary right, for the exercise of which he
was responsible solely to the nation ; that that power was given to enabla

348 period xni.— 1S£9 to 1837,

him, not only to remove incumbents for delinquency or incapacity, bm
with the view of reforming the administration of the government, and
introducing officers of greater efficiency or sounder principles, into its
various departments."

On the assembling of congress, these changes were the subject of
much discussion in the senate. ^ warm opposition was instituted by
the minority in that body against the whole course of the executive, in
relation to removals, both on the ground of their unconstitutionality
and inexpediency. Many of those appointed were, however, confirmed,
but several were rejected by strong votes.

5. The first session of the twenty-first congress com-
menced on the 7th of December. Andrew Stevenson
was elected speaker of the house of representatives.
The principal topics embraced in the message of the
president, related to a recommendation to amend the
constitution in relation to the choice of president and
vice-president — a modification of the tariff — a provision
for the disposition of the surplus revenue, after the ex-
tinguishment of the national debt — the assignment of a
territory west of the Mississippi for the Indian tribes
within the states — and a consideration of the renewal of
the charter of the Bank of the United States.

In respect to an amendment of the constitution, regulating the election
of president and vice-president, Gen. Jackson said : — " The mode may
be so regulated as to preserve to each state its present relative weight in
the election ; and a failure in the first attempt may be provided for, by
confining the second to a choice between the two highest candi-
dates. In connexion with such an amendment, it would seem advisa-
ble to limit the service of the chief magistrate to a single term, of
either four or six years." He also expressed his conviction of the im-
propriety of selecting members of congress for offices of trust and
profit, excepting for the cabinet and judicial and diplomatic stations, un-
der a belief that their exclusion from all appointments in the gift of the
president, in whose election they may have been officially concerned-,
would contribute to the purity of the government

In respect to the disposition of the surplus revenue, whenever the
national debt should have been extinguished, and that event would
occur at no distant day, the president expressed his belief, that, consid-
ering the diversity of opinion, which existed in respect to the constitu-
tional power of congress to make appropriations for purposes of inter-
nal improvement, the " most safe, just, and federal disposition which
could be made of the surplus revenue, would be its apportionment
among the several states, according to their ratio of representation j
and should this measure not be found warranted by the constitution,

Jackson's administration. 349

that it would be expedient to propose to the states an amendment au-
thorizing it."

The views ot the executive in regard to the disposal of the Indian
tribes within the limits of the United Slates were presented at consid-
erable length, and the plan, which has since been carried into effect,
proposed.

Another important subject included in the message, and one which,
as years have succeeded, has occasioned great political dissension, was
the subject of the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank.
Although several years would elapse before the existing charter would
expire, the executive deemed it a subject of sufficient importance, thus
early to bring it before the legislature and the people. In so doing,
and in the terms employed, he was understood to be opposed to such
an institution.

6. The message of the executive excited an intense
interest throughout the Union. This interest early-
manifested itself among the respective parties in the
national legislature, and for months the capitol was the
scene of a warm and spirited contest. The suhjects
which gave birth to the most spirited debates related to
Indian affairs — the United States Bank — the tariff, and
internal improvements. %

One of the most embarrassing subjects which fell under the cogni-
zance of the new administration, related to the Indian tribes within the
limits of the states already admitted into the Union ; but especially to
the Cherokees, a powerful tribe within the limits of Georgia. This
state laid claim to the territory occupied by the tribe ; and, encouraged
by the views of the executive, viz., that he could not interpose to pre-
vent a state from extending her laws over the tribes within her limits,
authorized an intrusion upon the Indian territory for the purpose of
surveying it, and extending her jurisdiction over it. The state laws
were accordingly attempted to be enforced. One George Tassel, a
Cherokee, was arraigned for the murder of another Cherokee, tried and
condemned. Several missionaries were warned to quit the Indian ter-
ritory; and on refusal, were taken, and for some time imprisoned.

The case of the missionaries, however, was at length brought before
the supreme court of the United States. The decision of that court,
March 30, 1832, involved the question of jurisdiction over the country
of the Cherokees. The claims of Georgia were s'et aside by this deci-
sion, as unconstitutional ; and her laws by which the Indians had been
deprived of their rights, and the missionaries confined and imprisoned,
were pronounced null and void. *

This decision of the supreme judicial tribunal of the United
States was resisted by Georgia, and the missionaries continued in
prison.

This unpleasant controversy was at length ended by a letter ad»

350 period xiii.— 1829 to 1837.

dressed, January 8th, 1833, by the missionaries, to the governor of
Georgia, in which they informed his excellency, that they had for«
warded instructions to their counsel, to prosecute the case no farther.
Upon this, January 14th, his excellency issued his proclamation remit-
ting the further execution of the sentence, and discharging the mis-
sionaries from prison.

We shall only add, that on the 23d of May, 1838, a military force of
several thousand men, under the command of General Scott, was
assembled on the Cherokee territory, for the purpose of removing the
nation to the territory assigned them beyond the great river of the west.

In his message to congress the president had expressed an opinion
against renewing the charter of the United States Bank, which would
expire in 1836. The bank had not applied for such renewal, but being
pressed on the attention of congress, it was referred to the committees
on finance in both houses of congress for examination.

On the 30th of April, 1830, Mr. McDuffie, the chairman of the com-
m ttee of ways and means, in the house, made a report diametrically
opposite to the recommendations of the president.

Respecting the first proposition contained in the message, that con-
gress had not the constitutional power to incorporate a bank, the com-
mittee deemed that question no longer open for discussion.

They also came to a different opinion from that contained in the mes-
sage, respecting the expediency of the measure.

The report from the committee on finance in the senate, concurred
with that of the house in its conclusions, and was equally decisive in
its condemnation of the sentiments of the president.

The effect produced in the public mind by the message was entirely
done away, and the stock of the bank, which had fallen upon the de-
livery of the message from 126 to 120, rose after the publication
of these reports to 127, and finally attained the price of 130 dollars
per share.

In December, 1832, a memorial was presented to congress from the
president and directors of the United States Bank for a renewal of its
charter. Soon after, a committee was appointed by the house to in-
vestigate the proceedings of the bank. A majority of this committee,
adopting the views of the executive, reported against a renewal of the
charter, principally on the ground of a violation of its charter by illegal
transactions. A counter report was presented by the minority, in the
conclusion of which they bore unequivocal testimony to the fidelity of
the officers of that institution.

On the 10th of June, the question was taken in the senate on a bill
to incorporate the bank, which passed that body by a vote of 28 to 20.
On the 3d of July the question was taken in the house, and the chartei
renewed by a vote of 107 to 85. On the 10th, the bill was returned by
the president, with his objections.

+ Although not unexpected to the country, the veto put upon the bill
by the president gave great dissatisfaction to the friends of the bank
in every section of the United States. A general disturbance of the
currency was predicted as the necessary cousequence. " We have ar-
rived at a new epoch,'' said one of the advocates of the bank on the
floor of the senate. " We are entering on experiments with the gov-

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 351

eminent unci the constitution of the country, hitherto untried, and of
fearful and appalling aspect."

Another subject of importance introduced in the message respected
internal improvements. During the administration of Washington and
the elder Adams, no application was made of the public revenue to in-
ternal improvements, the government having as many demands
upon the treasury, growing out of debts incurred in the revolu-
tion, as could he met. But during the presidency of Mr. Jef-
ferson, the internal improvement policy was begun, by an act passed
May 1st, r&02, making appropriations for opening roads in the north-
west territory. This was followed by other similar appropriations.
During Mr. Madison's administration, the appropriations were in-
creased, and still further augmented while Mr. Monroe was in office.
On the accession of Mr. Adams, the policy was still pursued ; and as he
was understood to give a still more liberal construction of the constitu-
tion on this subject, more appropriations were made for the above object,
during his administration, than during those of all his predecessors.

Gen. Jackson, while holding a seat in the senate of the United

States, had voted with the friends of internal improvement. It was

therefore anticipated by a numerous class in the United States, and

'among them were some of his friends, that he would follow out the

Eolicy of his predecessors. In his message to congress, however, he
rst manifested an unwillingness to the exercise of this power by con-
gress. As the session advanced it became more and more apparent
that he was hostile to all appropriations to the above object. And,
finally, all doubt was ended, by his return of several bills appropriating
money for internal improvements, with objections.

A decided majority in congress being in favor of such appropriations,
notwithstanding the viewrs of the executive, several bills were intro-
duced into the house, similar to those which thepresident had rejected,
and were passed by both houses by decided majorities.

The president and his cabinet thus found themselves compelled to
yield to public opinion expressed in congress, and although their deter-
mination checked the action of the federal government in relation to
internal improvements, still they had surrendered every principle upon
which their opposition to the system could be founded.

By these decisive votes in congress, this policy was considered as
firmly established, and nothing was required to carry it into effect with
moderation and discretion, but the harmonious co-operation between
the different branches of the government.

7. Early in the spring of 1831, an event occurred,
which produced no inconsiderable surprise and curiosity
throughout the country : this was the announcement in
the official journal at the seat of government, (April 20,
1S31,) that the cabinet ministers of the president had
resigned. A new cabinet was organised during the
summer, constituted as follows : Edward Livingston,

352 period x^l— 1829 to 1837.

of Louisiana, Secretary of State ; Louis McLane, of Del«
aware, Secretary of the Treasury ; Lewis Cass, of Ohio,
Secretary of War; Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire,
Secretary of the Navy ; Roger B. Taney, of Maryland,
Attorney General.

The cause of this dissolution in the cahinet was want of harmony in
the administration ; and this want of harmony, according to a communi-
cation of the attorney general to the public, was a determination to
compel the families of the dismissed members to associate with the
wife of the secretary of war.

8. On the 4th of July, a treaty, a-djusting the claims
of American citizens on France for 'spoliations during
the reign of Napoleon, was signed by Mr. Rives and
Sebastiani, at Paris, and the ratifications in due time
were exchanged between the two governments.

By this treaty, the French government agreed to pay to the United
States, in complete satisfaction of all claims of the citizens of the Uni-
ted States, for seizures, captures, sequestrations, or destruction of their
vessels, cargoes, or other property, 25,000,000 francs, in six equal
annual instalments. The government of the United States, on their
part, agreed to pay 1,500,000 francs to the government of France, in
satisfaction of all claims in behalf of France, its citizens, or the royal
treasury, either for ancient supplies or accounts, or for unlawful seiz-
ures, captures, detentions, arrests, or destruction of French vessels, car-
goes, or other property, in six annual instalments, to be reserved out of
the instalments payable to the United States": interest, at the rate of 4
percent., is to be allowed on the above sums, from the exchange of the
ratifications.

The sum thus stipulated to be paid by France did not amount to
more than one third of the just claims of the citizens of the United
States, but their liquidation, even upon terms comparatively unfavor-
able, was so desirable, that the conclusion of this treaty was hailed by
all parties. See Sec. 14, 16.

9. During the spring of 1832, hostilities were com-
menced by the Sac and Fox Indians on the western bor-
ders of the United States, under the celebrated chief,
Black Hawk. This aggression created a necessity for
the interposition of the executive, who ordered a portion
of the troops, under Generals Scott and Atkinson, to-
gether with a detachment of militia from the stale of
Illinois, into the field. After a harassing warfare, pro*

jackson's administration. 353

longed by the nature of the country, and the difficulty
of procuring subsistence, the Indians were defeated, and
Black Hawk and the Prophet were taken prisoners.

10. The second session of the twenty-second congress
commenced on the third of December, 1832. In his
message, the president, having alluded in brief but
appropriate terms to the cholera, which had been spread-
ing its desolations over portions of the United States,
represented the relations of the country with foreign
powers in a state of amity. The finances of the country
were in a prosperous state ; the national debt, on the
first of January, 1833, would be reduced to about seven
millions ; doubts were expressed as to the safety of the
deposits in the United States Bank, and a decision of
the question as to the disposal of public lands was urged.

11. The message of the president on the 4th of De-
cember, was followed, (December 10,) by a proclamation,
addressed to the citizens of the United States, in rela
tion to the hostile attitude of South Carolina to the
Union, in consequence of the acts of congress of 29th
May, 1S28, and of 14th of July, 1833, altering and
amending the several acts imposing duties on imports —
which acts had, in a convention of the above state, held
at Columbia, November 24, been pronounced to be un-
constitutional, and therefore void, and of no binding
force within the limits of that state. This proclamation
was an able document, furnishing a sound exposition of
the principles and powers of the government, and breath-
ing a spirit of patriotic devotion to the constitution,
and union of the states. It evinced a fixed determina-
tion to maintain the laws, and to resist all treasonable
and disorganizing measures. Happily, this firmness of
the executive, with subsequent conciliatory measures of
congress, saved the Union.

For a considerable period, the southern states, with the exception of
South Carolina, have been considered opposed to the exercise of power
by the federal government. This state, although voting with the adja-

30*

354 period xni.— 1829 10 1837.

cent states on all local, and on most national questions, had on some
occasions, as in 1816, been foremost in asserting the right of congress
to legislate on certain disputed points. Among these were the subjects
of Internal Improvement, the United States Bank, and the Tariff. A
change of opinion had now taken place there, and it began to go beyond
any of the advocates of state rights, in its assertion of state sovereign-
ty. A vehement opposition to the tariff, both in 1824 and on the sub-
sequent modification in 1823, had been led by the talented delegation
from South Carolina in congress ; and when they were defeated in the
halls of legislation, with characteristic energy they renewed their
efforts to overturn the system, and to render it unpopular with the
people.

In the latter part of November, 1832, a state convention assembled
at Columbia, which, at length, passed an ordinance, by which they
declared : " That the several acts and parts of acts of the congress
of the United States, purporting to be laws, for the imposing of duties
and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities, and now hav-
ing actual, operation and effect within the United States, and more
especially" two acts for the same purposes passed on the 29th of May,
1828, and on the 14th of July, 1832, " are unauthorized by the consti-
tution of the United States, and violate the true meaning and intent
thereof, and are null and void, and no law," nor binding on the citi-
zens of that state or its officers ; and by the said ordinance it is further
declared to be "unlawful for any of the constituted authorities of the
state, or the United States, to enforce the payment of the duties im-
posed by the said acts within the same state, and that it is the duty
of the legislature to pass such laws as may be necessary to give full
effect to the said ordinance."

This tone of menace naturally aroused the executive to correspond-
ing energy and decision. He immediately issued a proclamation,
which will long be admired for its sound and able exposition of the
principles of the constitution — for its breathings of a spirit of exalted
patriotism — and its eloquent appeal to Carolina herself, and to the
other states which were perhaps ready to join her standard, to remem-
ber the toil and blood which American liberty cost — the sacredness of
the constitution — and the importance of the preservation of the
Union.

While the proclamation of the president was commended by most of
the states of the Union as an able and judicious document, it served to in-
crease rather than allay the excited citizens of South Carolina. The leg-
islature of that state being in session, authorized and instructed her gov-
ernor to issue a counter proclamation, which he did on the 20th of De-
cember, in which, in consonance with the legislative resolutions, he
" solemnly warned the citizens of South Carolina against all attempts to
seduce them from their primary allegiance to the state." "I charge
you," said he, i: to be faithful to your duty, as citizens of South Caro-
lina, and earnestly exhort you to disregard those ' vain measures' ot
military force, which, if the president, in violation of all his constitu-
tional obligations, and your most sacred rights, should be tempted to
employ, it would become your solemn duty, at all hazards, to resist."

On the same day general orders were issued by authority cif the leg-

JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 355

islature, to raise volunteers, either in companies, troops, battalions,
squadrons, &c, for the purpose of repelling invasion and in support of
the rights of the state.

Under a deep sense of the importance of energy befitting the emer*
gency, the president, January 16th, 1833, addressed a message to con-
gress, in which, after giving a history of proceedings both on the part
of Carolina and the general government, he recommended the adoption
of such measures as would clothe the executive with competent power
to suppress the risen spirit of insubordination — sustain the public offi-
cers in the discharge of their duties — and give power to the courts to
carry out their constitutional decisions.

While the storm was apparently thus gathering strength, and was
ready to burst in still greater violence upon the nation, two events oc-
curred which served to allay it, and indeed were the harbingers of
comparative peace and amity.

The first of these was an affectionate appeal of the general assembly
of Virginia to the patriotism and magnanimity of South Carolina, ex-
pressed in a preamble and resolutions, as honorable to the " Ancient
Dominion" as any act of her life, and worthy of her in the days of
Patrick Henry and his contemporaries.

The other event was the passage of a bill, introduced by Mr. Clay,
termed the "compromise bill" — which was designed as an act of pa-
cification between the north and south — a middle course between ex-
tremes ; and although not entirely satisfactory perhaps to either party,
it was accepted by both, and was the means, under Providence, of stay-
ing the risen storm.

A convention was soon after held in South Carolina, which, in view
of the appeal of Virginia, and the modification of the tariff, proceeded
to recommend the following ordinance : —

"Whereas, the congress of the United States, by an act recently
passed, has made such a reduction and modification of the duties upon
foreign imports, as amounts substantially to an ultimate reduction of
the duties to the revenue standard, and that no higher duties shall be
made than may be necessary to defray the expenditures of the govern-
ment :

" It is therefore ordained and declared, That the ordinance entitled
' An ordinance to nullify certain acts of the congress of the United
States, purporting to be laws laying duties on the importation of for-
eign commodities,' and all acts passed in pursuance thereof, be hence-
forth deemed and held to have no force or effect ; provided that the act en-
titled ' An act further to amend the militia laws of this state,' passed on
the 20th day of December, 1832, shall remain in force until it shall bo
repealed or modified by the legislature."

It is unnecessary to pursue this topic further. It was a season,
of peril through which we passed. But the God of our fathers
mparted energy and wisdom to our rulers, and the violence of civil
discord was allayed, and harmony and peace were restored.

12. On the 4th day of March, 1833, General Jackson,
who had been re-elected president of the United States

356 period xiii.— 1829 to 1837.

for four years ensuing, entered upon his second term.
At the same time, Martin Van Buren took the oath pre-
scribed, as vice-president.

Gen. Jackson was re-elected to the presidency by a large majority
of the electoral votes. For Andrew Jackson, 219; for Henry Clay,
49; for John Floyd, 11; for William Wirt, 7. The vote for vice-
president was as follows: for Martin Van Buren, 189 ; for John Sar-
geant, 49 ; for Amos Ellmaker, 7 ; for Henry Lee, 11.

13. During the summer of 1833, the president, accom-
panied by the vice-president, and several of the secreta-
ries, visited New England by the way of Philadelphia
and New York, and having proceeded as far as Concord
New Hampshire, returned again to the seat of govern-
ment.

In this tour, the president was received, in every place through
which he passed, with those demonstrations of respect and attention,
which are ever due to the chief magistrate of a free and enlightened
people. Whatever opinions were entertained of his administration by
his political opponents, they united in every suitable expression of
honor to the man whom the suffrages of a majority had elevated to the
highest office in the nation. The president's tour commenced on the
6th of June, and was suddenly terminated in the beginning of July — ■
his return to Washington being hastened, as was said, by the state of
his health, which had become too feeble to endure the fatigue inci-
dental to such an expedition.

14. The first session of the twenty-third congress
commenced on the 2d of December. Andrew Steven-
son was elected speaker. The two prominent topics of
the president's message related to the failure of France
to fulfil the stipulations of the convention on the 4th of
July, 1831 — and the removal from the Bank of the
United States, of the government funds deposited in that
institution.

_ By the above convention, it was stipulated that the sum, as indem-
nity for French spoliations, payable to the United States, should be
paid at Paris in six annual instalments into the hands of an author-
ized agent of the government of the United States — the first instal-
ment to be paid February 2, 1833. A bill had been drawn at Wash-
ington and presented March 23, but was refused to be paid by the

jackson's administration. 357

French minister, on the ground that no appropriation had been made
by the French chambers. In view of this delay the president informed
congress that he had despatched a minister plenipotentiary to France
to press upon the government the fulfilment of its stipulations.

The removal of the government funds or "deposits" from the
United States Bank, which had now been effected, was largely des-
canted upon in the message, as an act of the [venturer, not only justi-
fied by the executive, but recommended and urged by that officer.
" Since the last adjournment of congress, the secretary of the treasury,"
observed the president, " has directed the money of the United States
to be deposited in certain state banks designated by him, and he will
immediately lay before you his reasons for this direction. I concur
with him entirely in the view he has taken of the subject. I urged
upon the department the propriety of taking that step."

In his message to congress, the president had spoken of the removal
of the deposits, as an act of the secretary of the treasury, which he
had indeed recommended and urged — but as his (the secretary's) act.
By a portion of the people the executive was charged with an unfair
statement on the subject ; that in fact this removal was a measure
which had originated with the executive, and had grown out of his
jealousy of and hostility to the bank. It was a measure which the
president had brought before his cabinet, and to its members in coun-
cil had said : " The president begs his cabinet to consider the proposed
measure as his, in the support of which he shall require no one of them
to make a sacrifice of opinion or principle. Its responsibility has been
assumed after the most mature deliberation." It was therefore, said
the opponents of the measure, the president's act — the secretary being
but an instrument of the executive, subject to his will, inasmuch as
he was liable to be removed in case of refusal. And in confirmation
of this view, the sudden dismission of Mr. Duane was appealed to, as
by that gentleman the public were informed, under his own signature,
that on his refusal to direct a removal of the deposits, he was in-
formed by the president that his services as treasurer were no longer
desired ; and his place was supplied by one (Mr. Taney) who acted in
subserviency to the wishes of the executive. Hence the president was
loudly censured for his unwarrantable and even dangerous assumption
of power.

The subject early attracted the attention of congress ; and through-
out the country great excitement prevailed. Confidence in the pecu-
niary institutions of the country immediately began to be shaken, and
predictions of still greater derangement and distress were rife in all
the land.

At a subsequent period of the session, Mr. Clay submitted the fol-
lowing resolutions : —

Resolved by the senate and house of representatives of the United
States of America, in congress assembled, That the reasons communi-
cated by the secretary of the treasury in his report to congress on the
4th December, 1833, for the removal of the deposits of the money of
the United States, from the bank of the United. States and its branches,
are insufficient and unsatisfactory:

Resolved, therefore, That all deposits of the money of the United
States which may accrue or be received on and after the 1st day of

358 period xin.— 1829 to 1837.

July, 1834, shall be made with the bank of the United States and ltt
branches, in conformity with the provisions of the act, entitled "An
act to incorporate the subscribers to the bank of the United States,'1
approved the 10th of April. 1816.

On the 9th of June these resolutions were adopted by the senate—
the first by a vote of 29 to 16; the second by a vote of 28 to 16.

Shortly before the close of the session a bill was urged through the
house of representatives for regulating the deposit of the public money
in certain local banks. This bill having been sent to the senate, was
submitted to the committee on finance, who, instead of advising its
passage, recommended that the deposits be intrusted to the bank of
the United States as formerly.

15. On the 21st of June the death of the illustrious
La Fayette was announced to congress in a message
from the president.

La Fayette died at his residence, La Grange, in France, on the 20th
of May. The president, in his message, announcing the melancholy
event, spoke of him in terms of appropriate honor — of his character —
his love of liberty — his sacrifices in the cause of the Americans — his
efforts for the good of mankind.

A joint select committee of both houses reported a series of appro-
priate resolutions, among which one went to request the president tc
address a letter of condolence to his surviving family — and another tc
appoint John Q,uincy Adams to deliver, at the next session of congress
an oration on the life and character of this illustrious man.

16. The- second session of the twehty-third congress
commenced on the 1st of December, 1834. In his mes-
sage the president represented the foreign relations of
the country to be pacific, except in respect to France,
who still continued to persevere in her omission to
satisfy the conceded claims of our citizens. The other
prominent subjects regarded the United States Bank—
the regulation of the deposits — and the impolicy and
unconstitutionality of appropriations for internal im-
provements.

The conduct of France towards the United States, in neglecting the
payment of a just and already allowed debt, was generally censured
m the United States. The president informed congress " that in his
opinion, the United States ought to insist on a prompt execution of the
treaty, and should an appropriation not be made by the French cham-
bers at their next session, prompt measures would not only be most
honorable and just, but have the best effect on our national character/'
This recommendation of the president was considered by some, in its

jackson's administration. 359

practical effects, as a declaration of war, and especially as he recommend-
ed, in case of longer neglect, a law authorizing reprisals upon French
property. But the expediency of reprisals upon French property,
recommended by the president, or indeed of any immediate action on
the part of the national government, was considered by many extremely
doubtful; and the senate, on the 14th Jan., by an unanimous vote, stated
this to be its opinion. in a resolution to that effect. A similar resolu-
tion was adopted by the house.

The prospect of a serious collision between these two nations, fr>- a
time so dark, at length passed away. In 1835, the president an-
nounced that France had acknowledged the validity of our claims
».s liquidated by the treaty of 1831, although payment was still with-
held.

In 1836, the president announced that the appropriations havingbeen
made, our diplomatic relations with France had been resumed, and
promised to be mutually beneficial to the two countries.

The long cherished hostility of the president to the hank of the
United States caused him to give it a long notice in his message. " It
has," says he, "become the scourge of the people. Its interference tc
postpone the payment of a portion of the national debt, that it might
retain the public money appropriated for that purpose, to strengthen it
in a political contest — the extraordinary extension and contraction of
its accommodations to the community — its corrupt and partisan loans
— its*"exclusion of the public directors from a knowledge of its most
important proceedings — the unlimited authority conferred on the presi
dent to expend its funds in hiring writers, and procuring the execution
of printing, and the use made of that authority — the retention of the
pension money and books after the selection of new agents — the
groundless claim to heavy damages, in consequence of the protest of a
bill drawn on the French government, have, through various channels,
been laid before congress."

The public pecuniary and mercantile distress was charged by the pres-
ident to the management of the bank, and the importance of separation
between this institution and the government was strongly urged. The at-
tention of congress was earnestly invited to the regulation of the deposits
in the state banks by law. The subject of internal improvements was
again discussed, and the inexpediency and unconstitutionality of ap-
propriations therefor, without an amendment of the constitution, acam
maintained.

17. The first session of the twenty-fourth congress
commenced on the 7th of December, 1835. James K.
Polk was elected speaker of the house of representatives.

The most important act of this session was the " deposit and distri-
bution act" — or a law requiring and regulating the deposit of the
money of the United States with the banks of the several states, and
the distribution of the surplus revenue among the several states. In
the senate, the vote on the engrossment of this bill was, yeas, 40 ;
says, 6. In the house, yeas, 163 ; nays, 44

360 period xiii.— 1829 to 1837.

18. On the second of April, 1836, an act passed con»
gress establishing the Territory of Wisconsin.

This territory is bounded north by lake Superior and the territorial
line of the United States ; west by the Mississippi river ; south by
Illinois ; east by lake Michigan.

19. On the 15th of June, 1836, a resolution passed
congress admitting Arkansas into the Union on an equal
footing with the original states. On the same day, a
resolution passed congress admitting Michigan into the
Union under certain conditions. [See period xi., sec. 13. J

The condition upon which Michigan was to be received into the
Union was an assent of a convention of delegates, to be elected by the
people of said state, to the boundaries of said state, as described in the
act of admission. A controversy had arisen between Ohio and Michi-
gan as to the boundary line between those states, whicli was settled
by the above act, and to this the assent of Michigan was required.
This assent was subsequently given, and her admission followed on
that assent.

20. On the 11th of July was issued from the treasury
department, an important circular in relation to the
funds which should be received in payment for public
iands.

By this circular the receivers of public money were instructed, after
the 15th day of August next ensuing, to receive in payment of the pub-
lic lands nothing except what is directed by the existing laws, viz.,
gold and silver, and in the proper places, Virginia land scrip. In
order to secure the faithful execution of these instructions, all receiv-
ers were strictly prohibited from accepting for land sold, any draft,
certificate, or other evidence of money or deposit, though for specie,
unless signed by the treasurer of the United States, in conformity to the
act of April 24, 1820.

21. The second session of the twenty-fourth congress
commenced on the 5th of December, 1836.

On the following day, the president transmitted his last annual mes-
sage— before another session, he would have retired once more to pri«
Tate -life.

The foreiga relations of the country continued in an amicable state.

The deposit, or distribution act, passed by the preceding congress,
had received, lie said, his " reluctant approval," and " the consequences
apprehended from it. had been measurably realized." It was an act

jackson's administration. 361

merely for tne deposit of the surplus moneys of the United States m
the state treasuries, for safe keeping, until wanted for the service of
the general government — but it had been spoken of as a gift — would
be so considered— and might be so used.

Contrary to the views of a large portion of the citizens of the United
States, the president represented the "specie circular" of the 11th of
July, as producing "many salutary consequences." " It is confidently
believed," said he, " that the country will find in the motives which
induced that order, and the happy consequences which will have en-
sued, much to commend and nothing to condemn." In opposition to
this opinion of the president, there were those who attributed to the
operation of thai circular, a great part of the pecuniary embarrassment
and disturbance of the currency, which afflicted the country.

The management of the government funds by the state banks was
represented to be safe and judicious. " Experience continues to
realize," said he, "the expectations entertained as to the capacity of
the state banks to perform the duties of fiscal agents for the govern-
ment, at the time of the removal of the deposits. It was alleged by
the advocates of the Bank of the United States that the state banks,
whatever might be the regulations of the treasury department, could not
make the transfers required by the government, or negotiate the domes-
tic exchanges of the' government. It is now well ascertained that the
real domestic exchanges performed, through discounts, by the United
States Bank and its twenty-five branches, were at least one third less
than those of the deposit banks, for an equal period of time ; and if a
comparison be instituted between the amount of service rendered by
these institutions, on the broader basis which has been used by the
advocates of the United States Bank, in estimating what they con-
sider the domestic exchanges transacted by it, the result will be still
more favorable to the deposit banks."

22. On the 14th of Jan., 1837, the " Expunging
Resolution," so called, originally introduced into the
senate, March 18, 1836, by Mr. Benton, of Missouri,
was adopted by the senate.

The resolution, which, from the time of its adoption, March 28th,
1834, censuring the president for removing Mr. Duane, and assuming
power over the public revenue not conferred by the constitution, had
given Gen. Jackson and his friends such serious annoyance, and against
which he had entered his protest, Mr. Benton had until now vainly
endeavored to blot out from the senate's journal. But, at length, he
succeeded by a small majority; and late at night, on the 16th of Jan.,
1837, the secretary of the senate, by order, brought the journal of
1833-4 into the senate chamber, and spread open the condemned nage
upon the table. He then proceeded to draw black lines on the tour
sides of the recorded resolution, and on the face of it. wrote — " Ex-
punged by order of the senate, Jan. 16, 1837." Against this proceeding,
Daniel Webster, in behalf of himself and colleague, read a solema
protest.

362 beriod xiii.— 1829 to 1837.

23. Feb. 8th, 1837, the votes for president and vice
president were counted, and Martin Van Buren, of New
York, was declared to be elected to the former office for
four years from the 4th of March, 1837, and Richard M.
Johnson, of Virginia, to the latter, for the same period,
and from the same date.

The whole number of votes given for Mr. Van Buren, including
Michigan, were 170; for William Henry Harrison, 73; Hugh Lawson
White, 26; Daniel Webster, 14; William P. Mangum, 11. Majority
for Mr. Van Buren, if the votes of Michigan be counted, 148 ; if not
counted, 146.

The votes given for Richard M. Johnson as vice-president, including
Michigan, 147 ; for Francis Granger, 77 ; John Tyler, 47 ; William
Smith, 23.

According to this vote, no candidate was elected by the electors to
the office of vice-president. Hence, it devolved upon the senate to
elect from the two nighest on the list of electoral votes, viz., Richard
M. Johnson and Francis Granger. On the following day, the former
was elected by that body.

24. In drawing this sketch of the administration of
Gen. Jackson to a close — and a sketch only was design-
ed— it may be remarked, that the events of his adminis-
tration are not yet ripe for the regular historian. The
day when a fair exhibition of his government can be
given is still distant. " His measures," as a writer re-
marks, " have not produced their full results. His pol-
icy has not yet compassed their full development." The
author has, therefore, confined himself chiefly to a nar-
ration of facts and events, leaving it for the future histo-
rian to chronicle the decision of the nation, in respect to
the merits or demerits of a ruler, whose administration,
in its progress, has been the subject of loud praise and
deep-toned censure — the former by friends, the latter by
opposers.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD XIV.

DISTINGUISHED FOR VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Van
Buren, 1837, to the Inauguration of William Henry
Harrison, as President of the United States, 1841.

Sec. 1. The inauguration of Mr. Van Buren, as
president of the United States, took place on the 4th of
March, 1837, in accordance with the forms prescribed
by the constitution, and in the presence of an immense
multitude, gathered from all quarters of the country to
witness the imposing ceremony.

The inaugural address of Mr. Van Bnren disappointed both friends
and foes. The temper of it was conceded, even by his opposers, to be
good, and its entire exemption from invidious comparisons and allu-
sions, was worthy of all commendation. It was even less partisan,
perhaps, than the political friends of the new president expected or de-
sired ; but to his opponents it induced the hope, that the vindictive
strife which had long harassed the country, would be followed by a
more tolerant policy.

By way of conciliating the south, Mr. Van Buren distinctly stated,
that no bill, which had for its object the abolition of slavery in the Dis-
trict of Columbia, against the wishes of the slaveholding states, would
receive his sanction, during his presidential career.

On the day of inauguration, along and elaborate farewell address by
Gen. Jackson to the people of the United States, was circulated in
Washington, and thence was extensively spread through the countrv.

364 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

" My public life," said he, "has been a long one, and I csnp.ot hops
that it has, at all times, been free from errors. But I hatr°> the co.iso-
lation of knowing, that if mistakes have been committed, they have
not seriously injured the country ; and at the moment when I surrender
my last public trust, / leave this great people prosperous and happy ;
and in the full enjoyment of liberty and peace, and honored and re-
spected by every nation of the world."

In opposition to these declarations, the opposers of his administration
averred, that the course which he had pursued in relation to the cur-
rency ; his uncompromising hostility to the Bank of the United States;
his removal of the national deposits from that institution — the influence
of the executive, which had in evei-y possible way been brought to bear
upon it, in consequence of which a renewal of its charter had been de-
feated, and public confidence as to the management of it had become
weakened — and the paper system of the country, and even a mixed cur-
rency, had been decried — these measures, in their view, had caused a
derangement of the currency, had destroyed confidence, and paralyzed
trade and commerce ; and hence they were not prepared to admit that
the country was either prosperous or happy.

2. The new senate, according- to usage, assembled in
their chamber, at Washington, on the day succeeding the
inauguration, and confirmed in their executive sittings
the nominations made by Mr. Van Buren of the follow-
ing gentlemen to compose his cabinet ; viz., John For-
syth, Secretary of State ; Levi Woodbury, Secretary of
the Treasury ; Joel R. Poinsett, Secretary of War ;
Mahlon Dickerson, Secretary of the Navy ; Benjamin
F. Butler, Attorney General.

3. In less than a month after the adjournment of
congress, the monetary state of the country, deranged
as it had been, became visibly worse. The pressure in
New York, the commercial metropolis of the country,
became so severe, that immediate measures were deem-
ed essential to prevent a general failure of the mercan-
tile interest. In this crisis, it was proposed to apply to
the United States Bank for aid; and, with this object in
view, a deputation of merchants proceeded to Philadel-
phia, and upon their representations of the existing and
growing pressure, the United States Bank, greatly to ita
credit, furnished important, but, as. it resulted, only tern*
porary aid.

van euren's administration. 365

By the 8th of April, so rapidly had the work of mercantile ruin pro-
cessed, that, according to a respectable journal, the failures in the city
of New York were as follows, omitting the notice of hundreds of a
more unimportant character.

5 Foreign and Exchange Brokers, .... $15,080,000
30 Dry Goods jobbers, ....
16 Commission Shoe and Clothing Houses,
28 Real Estate speculators,

8 Stock Brokers, . . . .

6 Miscellaneous,

15,000,000
7,000,000

20,000,000
1,000,000
2,500,000

$60,500,000
At this time the sale of merchants' notes, even of the most consider-
able and responsible, was at an end. No one dared trust his neighbor.
Men who had been living in affluence, and who supposed themselves
worth an independent fortune, were distressed, and not a few of them,
who retired in comparative ease and comfort at night, awoke bankrupt,
and without a home, in the morning.

4. At length, on the 25th of April, a very numerously
attended meeting of citizens of New York was held, at
which a committee of fifty was appointed to proceed to
Washington, to lay their grievances, and those of the
country, before the executive, and to solicit his inter-
vention for such relief as might be within his power;
particularly that he would rescind the "specie circular;"
that collectors of the revenue, in all the ports of the
United States, might be instructed not to commence suit
upon any bond, which may lie over for non-payment,
until after the first day of January next; and, finally,
that the president would call an extra session of con-
gress at an early day, in order that the representatives
of the nation might have an opportunity to devise suita-
ble remedies for the unprecedented and alarming embar-
rassments of the country.

Pursuant to their appointment, this committee proceeded to Wash-
ington, and on the 3d of May made known by letter to the president
their presence in the city, and their object.

On the following day, the president replied, that in a few days a de-
finite reply would be given to the first request of the committee, viz.,
that the government would instruct collectors not to put bonds in suit,
&c. In respect to a repeal of the " specie circular," he had not been
able to satisfy himself that it was his duty to rescind it ; and, lastly, he
could not see sufficient reasons to justify him in convening congress at
an earlier day than that appointed by the constitution.

31 *

366 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

With this answer of the president, the committee returned to Ne*
York, where, on Monday evening, the 8th, to an assembled multituda
of anxious and interested citizens, they were obliged to make known
the failure of their commission, in respect to the two most important
objects of it.

Subsequently, the request of the citizens, through the committee, in
relation to the postponement of the collection of merchants' bonds, was
acceded to. This afforded sensible relief in numerous cases where real
embarrassment existed.

5. Two days after the report of the above committee,
the banks of the city of New York, without exception,
ceased to redeem their notes in specie. This exciting and
depressing intelligence travelled with unwonted speed,
producing in its progress, in all parts of the country, a
similar suspension on the part of the banks.

To the country, generally, this suspension was unexpected; but to
those who, for some months, had been watching the progress of events,
it was by no means marvellous. It was the unavoidable result of the
diversion of specie to the west, and the drain upon the banks in the
Atlantic cities for exportation to Europe. By the friends of the admin-
istration, with some exceptions, the measure was severely censured ;
by its opposers, it was deemed necessary and unavoidable, due to the
country, and due to the stockholders. Yet every class lamented its
necessity ; and none could fail to perceive that it must reach, in its ul-
timate effects, almost every individual, and have a bearing upon every
order of business. Yet of the two evils, suspension was deemed the
least.

6. On the 15th of May, the president issued his
proclamation requiring congress to convene in the city
of Washington, on the first Monday of September, to
attend to " great and weighty matters claiming consid-
eration."

To the committee of merchants, who had waited on the president on
the 3d of May, and which had pressed the subject of an extra session
of congress, he had replied, that he perceived no adequate reason for
assembling the national legislature. The sudden and unexpected sus-
pension of the banks essentially changed the views of the executive,
and forced upon him a measure, which, but a few days before, he had
declined. Not only were the mercantile interests of the country suffer-
ing, but noio the government itself was likely to be embarrassed, and
indeed it felt the pressure immediately. The deposit banks themselves
had bowed to the general prostration, whereby the government was
rendered incapable of discharging its obligations to the country, and to
individuals. In this state of embarrassment, it was deemed severe

van btjren's administration. 367

lhat the government should require specie only for all its dues, espe«
cially when that specie was to be obtained only at extravagant premi-
ums. But the treasury and post-office departments issued circulars,
requiring collectors and postmasters to receive only specie, or the notes
of specie-paying banks ; while, at the same time, checks and drafts
were drawn by the government upon deposit banks which had suspend-
ed ; and even instances occurred in which merchants' bonds were re-
quired to be paid in specie, while checks upon the deposit banks, drawn
by the government, were refused, when offered as payment in part of
such bonds. Pressed as the government was known to be, these requi-
sitions and measures bore severely on the people of the country, and
excited loud and bitter complaints.

7. On Monday, the 4th day of September, congress
convened, agreeably to the summons of the executive,
being the first session of the twenty-fifth congress.
The house was organized by choosing James K. Polk,
of Tennessee, speaker.

8. The following day a message from the president
was presented, in which, after alluding to the suspension
of the banks, and the necessity that adequate provision
should be made for the unexpected exigencies affecting
the government, which had arisen, and which were
likely to exist, the president proceeded to assign the
causes, which, in his view, had led to the pecuniary dis-
tress of the country. These were over-action in busi-
ness, arising from the excessive issues of bank paper,
and other facilities for the acquirement and enlargement
of credit ; the contraction of a large foreign debt ; invest-
ments in unproductive lands ; vast internal improve-
ments ; and the great loss sustained by the commercial
emporium of the nation in the fire of Dec, 1835.

9. The president next adverted to the best mode of
keeping the public funds. A national bank, as a fiscal
agent, he repudiated, and also local banks, they having
failed to answer the expectations of the government in
this particular. He would propose " a separation of the
fiscal operations of the government from those of indi-
viduals or corporations ;" a divorcement of the govern-
ment from banks and banking, and a thorough change
in the keeping and management of the public revenue

368 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

As a means of immediate relief, he advised to the" post-
ponement of the fourth instalment of the deposits with
the states, and the issue of treasury notes, receivable for
all public dues, but without interest.

Both by the president and the secretary of the treasury a new mode
was proposed of keeping the public revenue; viz., to place it in the
custody of commissioners, or receivers-general, at certain central points,
subject to the call and control of the treasurer. Most of the money,
it was supposed, could be paid out near the places where it was col-
lected, and thus save the expense and hazard of transmission to the
seat of government. " This organization," said the secretary, " would
be advantageous as a separate establishment for this business alone,
and as an independent check on most of those collecting the revenues."

10. The extra session of congress closed on the 16th
of October. The two principal measures adopted, de-
signed for the relief of the government, were the post-
ponement to the 1st day of January, 1839, of the pay-
ment of the fourth instalment of the deposits with the
states ; and the issue of treasury notes to an amount not
exceeding ten millions of dollars, reimbursable in one
year, and of denominations of not less than fifty dollars.

In accordance with the recommendation of the president and secre-
tary of the treasury, a bill was early introduced into the senate for the
safe keeping of the public funds, commonly denominated the sub-
treasury bill. This was intended to be the prominent measure of the
session, and was urged with great power, and by numerous considera-
tions, upon the senate and house of representatives. By the senate
it was adopted, by a vote of 26 to 20. In the house, after undergoing
an animated and protracted discussion, it was laid upon the table, by a
vote of 120 to 107. Subsequently, an effort was made to reconsider the
vote by which the bill was laid upon the table, but was lost, the motion
for reconsideration being itself disposed of in the same manner, by a
vote of 119 to 104.

In his message, the president had ascribed to certain causes the dis-
tress and embarrassments of the country, which have already been
noticed. The friends of his administration, in the course of the ses-
sion, reiterated the same statements, and made the same explanations.

To the opposition, these causes, and the arguments by which they
were attempted to be supported, were insufficient. Other and more
adequate causes, they believed, existed, and could be pointed out.

They claimed that, prior to that series of unfortunate measures,
which had for its object the overthrow of the Bank of the United
States, and the discontinuance of its fiscal agency for the government,
ao people upon earth ever enjoyed a better currency, or had exchanges

van bueen's administration. 369

teeter regulated, than the people of the United States. Our monetary
system appeared to have attained as great perfection as anything human
can possibly reach.

What a reverse, said they, and why has it come upon us? Who
can doubt that if the Bank of the United States had been re-chartered
— that if the public deposits had remained undisturbed — and the specie
circular, or treasury order, had never been issued, the currency would
at this time be sound, and the suspension of specie payments been
avoided? The president asserts that the suspension has proceeded
from over-action — over-trading — the indulgence of a spirit of specula-
tion, produced by the banks and other facilities. But whence the mul-
tiplication of banks? — whence these facilities? Are not these to bo
traced to the overthrow of the United States Bank, and the stimulation
of the local banks to discount freely upon the deposits which were trans-
ferred to them ?

11. The second session of the 25th congress com-
menced on the first Monday of Dec, 1837, and ended on
the 9th day of July, 1838. In his message, the pre-
sident represented the foreign relations of the country
as amicable and favorable, excepting with Mexico and
Portugal. The issue of four millions and a half of
treasury notes would be necessary for the year. The
attention of congress was again " invited to the neces-
sity of additional legislative provision in respect to the
collection, safe keeping, and transfer of the public
money ;" and not understanding the action of the extra
session on this subject as final, he again recommended
the sub-treasury scheme, as, in his view, designed to
subserve the interests of the country better than any
other plan proposed.

A bill to authorize the re-issue of treasury notes passed the house
of representatives by a vote of 106 to 99. In the senate, for the bill 27,
against it 13.

During this session of congress, an event occurred, which excited the
sensibilities of the whole nation, and called forth expressions of deci-
ded disapprobation from the candid of all parties. This was a. duel
fought with rifles near the city of Washington, between Jonathafl Gil-
ley and William J. Graves, both members of the hou^e, the former
from Maine, the latter from Kentucky. On the third fire, Mr. Cilley
fell, mortally wounded.

The remains of the murdered man were attended to the grave by the
president, the heads of department, the members of both' houses of
tongress, and a large concourse of citizens. The judges of the supreme
«mrt, then in session, were invited to attend the funeral. Most honor-

370 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

able to themselves, and honorable to the exalted stations they held,
they entered upon their records the following resolves :

Resolved, That the justices of the supreme court entertain a high re-
spect for the character of the deceased, sincerely deplore his untimely
death, and sympathize with his bereaved family in the heavy affliction
which has fallen upon them.

Resolved, That with every desire to manifest their respect for the
house of representatives, and the committees of the house by whom
they have been invited, and for the memory of the deceased, the jus-
tices of the supreme court cannot, consistently with the duties they owe
to the public, attend in their official characters the funeral of one who
has fallen in a duel.

Resolved, That these proceedings be entered on the minutes of the
court, and that the chief justice enclose a copy to the chairman of the
committee of the house of representatives.

The above tragical event justly excited the indignation of the nation.
From every quarter a demand was made for some law to prevent such
" wickedness in high places." At length, a bill for an act was reported
by a committee appointed for that purpose, which passed by a vote of
110 to 21. The first section provided, that if any person shall, in the
District of Columbia, challenge another to fight a duel ; or accept a
challenge ; or shall knowingly carry a challenge to fight a duel in or
out of the District of Columbia ; and such duel shall be fought in or out
of said district, and either of the parties shall be slain or mortally
wounded, the surviving party, and others connected, shall, on conviction,
be punished by imprisonment and hard labor in the penitentiary for a
term not exceeding ten years.

A second section provided, that the mere challenge, or aiding and
abetting a challenge, which resulted in no duel, should be punished as
above, for a term of five years.

A third section provided, that if any person guilty of assaulting,
striking, or wounding another, for refusing to accept a challenge ; or
who shall post or publish any person, or use towards them opprobrious
language, for refusing to accept a challenge, shall, on conviction, be
punished as above for a term not exceeding three years.

12. An event, important to the business of the country,
occurred on the 13th of August, 1838. This was the
resumption of the payment of specie generally through-
out the United States, by previous concert.

On the 23d day of July previous, a convention was held in the city
of Philadelphia, in which the banks of the states of Massachusetts,
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, were represented, and which unani-
mously resolved to recommend the 13th of August as a suitable and
convenient time, on which to resume. Accordingly, on the arrival of
that day, the resumption was generally effected without commotion^
without injury to themselves, and without inconvenience to the mercan-
tile part of the community.

van buren's administration. 371

Tliis was an event which had been long devoutly looked for, and was
Welcomed by the whole country. Some anxiety was felt as to the effeci
resumption would have upon the specie-paying banks ; but, genera. ly.
it was accomplished with ease. In Philadelphia, where this anxiety
was perhaps the greatest, the demands for specie were confined to the
wants of the community for change.

13. On the 9th of October, however, of the following
year, 1839, the banks of Philadelphia again suspended
the payment of specie. This suspension w^as soon aftei
followed by a suspension on the part of the banks in the
interior of Pennsylvania, and of all the states south and
west.

The suspension of specie payments in May, 1836, was begun by the
banks of New York, and the rest of the Union followed. In 1837, the
banks of New York were required by law to resume. They naturally
endeavored to induce other banks to do voluntarily, what they were
compelled to do by law. The public also were anxious for resumption.
An effort was made to accomplish this object, and was effected, con-
trary, however, to the opinion of some of the ablest financiers of the
country, who predicted a relapse.

Unfortunately, the grain crops in England failed ; in consequence of
which large importations of grain were required. These were made,
not from the United States, but from her neighbors, who could furnish
it cheaper. But as they were small consumers of English products,
specie chiefly was obliged to be advanced. This demand so drained
the Bank of England, as to threaten that institution with suspension.
By a natural consequence, money rose to a great value ; the staples of
this country were unsalable, except at ruinous prices; the stocks held
by states, banks, or by individuals, were wholly incontrovertible;
leaving as the safest and the most favorite mode of payment, the ex-
portation of specie. Large shipments of coin were made, leaving a
deficiency in the vaults of the banks, and which was to be supplied by
demands upon creditors to pay in gold and silver, which they could not
do but at ruinous sacrifices, or to suspend specie payments for a season.
This latter course was considered most conducive to the true interests
of the public ; and accordingly the banks in Philadelphia announced
their suspension, which of course compelled the banks south and west
to adopt a similar measure. The banks of New York and New Eng-
land, with some few temporary exceptions, resolved to continue the pay-
ment of specie, which with great effort they were able to accomplish.

14. The first session of the 26th congress convened
at Washington, conformably to the constitution, on the
second day of December, 1839. Unexpectedly, how-
ever, the house of representatives was not organized
for some weeks, in consequence of an exciting question

372 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

which arose as to the admission of the representatives
from New Jersey, on the ground, that, while they had
received certificates of election from the governor of that
state, those certificates should have been given to others,
who, it was claimed, had been duly elected.

It is usual for the last clerk of the house of representatives to make
out a list of members elect, which, at the precise hour of twelve o'clock
of the day on which congress assembles, he proceeds to read. On the
day and at the hour above mentioned, the clerk, Hugh A. Garland,
rose at his desk, and said that, in conformity with the practice hereto-
fore observed, he was now ready, if it was the pleasure of the house,
to call a list, which he had formed of members elect of the house of
representatives for the twenty-sixth congress, at this its first session.

No objections being made, the roll was commenced, and the members
of the several New England states, and also those from the state of "
New York, answered to their names. •

He next proceeded to the state of New Jersey, and called the name
of Joseph F. Randolph. Here he paused, and stated that there were
five of the seats belonging to representatives of this state which were
contested, and not feeling it to be his duty to decide the question of a
right to them, he would, if such a course should be approved by the
house, pass over the remaining names, until the other states should
have been gone through with; after which he would submit such
vidence as was in his possession, touching the several claimants to
seats from that state.

To this course, which would have been acceptable to some, there
were strong objections. Besides, the whig members from New Jersey,
on their part, demanded, that the evidences of their titles to seats
should be read, and that, if their certificates were authentic, they should
be admitted to equal rights with other members.

Upon this representation and demand, the clerk stated that he had
five certificates from the governor of New Jersey, declaring William
Halsted (whose name stood next upon the roll) and John B. Aycrigg,
J. P. B. Maxwell, Thomas Jones York, and Charles C. Shulton, to
have been duly elected representatives trom the state of New Jersey.

Having these certificates duly attested, it was contended that, ac-
cording to all former precedents, and agreeably to the laws of New Jer-
sey, the ahove gentlemen should be admitted to their oath, that after
the organization of the house, if their seats were claimed by others,
the question could be taken up, examined, and fairly disposed of. On
the other hand, it was claimed, that the seats of right belonged to other
gentlemen, who had received a majority of votes in their respective
districts, and who should have received certificates from the governor
of New Jersey.

The two political parties in congress were thus suddenly arrayed
against each other, and the state of feeling which followed can scarcely
be described.

At length, the following resolution was offered to the house by Mr.
Graves : "

van btjren's administration. 373

Resolved, That the acting clerk of the house shall proceed with the
call of the members from the different states of the Union in the usual
way, calling the names of sich members from New Jersey as hold the
regular and legal commissions from the executive of that slate.

The discussion of the above resolution was continued until it was
apparent to the whole house — the clerk refusing to put it — that unless
some other and extraordinary measure was adopted, commensurate with
the difficulties ia which they were involved, no organization could be
effected. In this juncture, a resolution was offered, appointing Mr.
Adams chairman of the house, which being adopted by a large major-
ity, he was conducted to the chair.

Under the guidance of Mr. Adams, the house proceeded on the 12th
to ballot for a speaker. Six ballotings were taken, when, no choice
having been made, an adjournment to the 16th was moved and carried.
On this latter day, the balloting was resumed, and resulted, on the
eleventh balloting, in the choice of Robert M. T. Hunter, the New Jer-
sey members not voting.

On the 20th, the question was taken on a resolution to administer the
oath to the five gentlemen from the state of New Jersey, who had pre-
sented credentials to the speaker and demanded to be sworn, and de-
cided in the negative, 116 to 112.

This decision created a great sensation throughout the Union. It
was a wide departure from precedent, and deeply wounding to the pride
ot New Jersey, as well as injurious to her interests.

The subsequent history of this case is interesting, but, in the opinion
of the whig party, reflected great discredit on the majority in the house
of representatives. An investigation of the subject was ordered, and
the committee on elections entered upon the duty assigned them. They
were proceeding in their investigation, when, on the 28th of February,
the house directed the committee " to report forthwith which five of
the ten individuals claiming seats from the state of New Jersey, re-
ceived the greatest number of lawful votes from the whole state for
representatives in the congress of the United Stales, at the election of
1838 in said state."

This committee reported m favor of the five administration candidates.
A minority report was at the same time presented, which was ordered
to lie on the table.

On the 10th of March, a resolution Avas introduced by Mr. Petriken,
declaring the five persons who had brought no legal certificates, enti-
tled to their seatSj and directing the speaker to qualify them.

The previous question being moved by the author of the resolution,
debate was suppressed, and the vote taken, and the resolution adopted
by a vote of 111 to 81 ; several whig members refusing to vote.
. To a portion of the American people, no act could have appeared more
arbitrary and unjust, however right and proper it might have seemed
to the party in power ; nor could many divest themselves of the impres-
sion, that this course was adopted to secure certain objects which the
administration had in view.

15. On Wednesday, December 4th, two days after the
opening of congress, and while scenes of great interest
32

374 period xiv.— 1837 to 1841.

ami excitement were in progress in the capitoi, a fully
attended whig national convention assembled at Harris-
burg, Pennsylvania, for the purpose of nominating can-
didates for the office of president and vice-president of
the United States. The deliberations of this convention
at length resulted in the nomination of Gen. William
Henry Harrison, of Ohio, for the former, and John
'Tyler, of Virginia, for the latter.

The whole number of votes cast for president was 254. Of these,
General Scott received 16; Henry Clay 90; and General Harrison 148.

The nomination thus made was unexpected to a considerable portion
of the whig party. For a long time, their attention had beenturned
towards Henry Clay, and an anxious wish prevailed, on the part of his
special friends, that he should be put in nomination. They confl-
dentlv expected it. But antecedently to the meeting of the convention,
it had been the general, and even the universal opinion, that when that
body should assemble, and an interchange of views had been made, the
man should he selected who, it was thought, could concentrate the
greatest strength against the existing administration. Preferences
were, therefore, to be surrendered at the shrine of the country's good.
While, therefore, it was at first with painful emotions that the friends
of Mr. Clay yielded, it was done with great unanimity, and even cheer-
fulness, when it was perceived that by the nomination of Gen. Harri-
son other influences and interests would be secured, which were likely
to result in his election.

16. Seldom has a congress of the United States held
a session of such length, as was that of the first session
of the twenty-sixth congress, without arriving at more
important results. Two acts only of a public character
are worthy of notice : the one providing " for the taking1
of the sixth census of the United States," and the
other " for the collection, safe keeping, transfer and dis-
bursement of the public revenue."

The act, viz., that for the collection, &c, of the public revenue,
usually denominated the sub-treasury system, may be regarded as the
great financial measure of Mr. Van Buren's administration. It was
early proposed by him, and in every subsequent message was urged
upon the consideration of congress, as the best scheme which could be
devised, by which the public revenue could be collected, safely kept,
transferred, and disbursed. The debates on this system, by the sup-
porters and opposers of the administration, during the several sessions
in which it was agitated, would fill volumes. By the president and hi?

van buren's administration. 375

friends, it was eulogized and warmly recommended ; by the opposition
party, it was as pointedly resisted and condemned. On this measure,
and others of a financial character connected with it, perhaps more than
on any others, Mr. Van Buren staked his political fortune. With this,
he entered into the election as a candidate for the presidency a second
term.

17. The second session of the twenty-sixth congress
was begun and held on Monday, the 7th day of Decem-
ber, 1840. On Wednesday following, Mr. Van Buren
presented his last annual message.

On the subject of the national finances, the president felicitated him-
self, that, notwithstanding the various embarrassments which the gov-
ernment had to encounter ; the great increase of public expenditures by
reason of the Florida war; the difficulty of collecting moneys still due
from certain banks, and the diminution of the revenue, &c, the busi-
ness of the government had been carried on without the creation of a
national debt.

Nominally, it had indeed no such debt; but a few months following
the accession of a new administration, the disclosure was officially
made, that the country was deeply involved in debt, and congress was
called upon to provide means to sustain the credit — the waning credit
of the government.

18. On the 10th of February, 1841, the ceremony of
counting and announcing officially the votes for presi-
dent and vice-president took place.

At twelve o'clock of that day, the members of the senate, preceded
by their sergeant-at-arms, the vice-president, (Col. Johnson,) the
secretary and his assistants, bearing a box containing the different

Eackages in which the votes were enclosed, went in procession to the
all of representatives, where seats had been provided for them on
the right of the chair. The members of the house received the sena-
tors standing. The vice-president was conducted to the speaker's
chair, as presiding officer of the meeting.

The assemblage being seated, the vice-president rose, and said, that,
in conformity to the duty imposed by the constitution, ne would now
proceed to open the packages which had been addressed to him, con-
taining the votes of the different states.

The votes having been counted, the vice-president announced the
result as follows: —

For president — William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, 234 ; Martin Van
Buren, of New York, 60. For vice-president — John Tyler, of Vir-
ginia, 234 ; Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, 48 ; Littleton W. Taze-
well, of Virginia, 11 ; James K. Polk, of Tennessee, 1.

Thus, for months, had a warm and exciting, and, in some cases, even
tngry contest been going on, moving the country from Georgia to Maine,

376 period xv.— 1841 to 1845.

and affecting the most obscure and distant neighborhood and village ot
the west.

The day of decision, however, had come. The freemen bad been
gathered to the polls ; the mighty mass of interested human beings had
cast in their votes ; these votes had been collected and forwarded to the
national metropolis ; and here, in the presence of the assembled coun-
sellors of the nation, they were counted ; and the final result was now
officially announced, that William Henry Harrison was elected presi-
dent of the United. States, for four years from the ensuing fourth day
of March.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD XV.

DISTINGUISHED FOR HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINIS-
TRATIONS.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Harri-
son, 1841, to tJie Inauguration of James K. Polk, as
President of the United States, 1845.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1841, William Henry
Harrison took the oath prescribed by the constitution,
and entered upon the office of president of the United

States.

The ceremony of inauguration was, as usual, grand and imposing ; —
the more so, perhaps, from an unwonted joy and enthusiasm on tne
occurrence of a change of administration, and a desire on the part of
the friends of the new administration to give an appropriate welcome
to the hero whom they had elevated to office.

The inaugural address of General Harrison was a clear, plain, and
comprehensive document ; less stately than that of Washington ; less
philosophic than Jefferson's ; and less terse than Mr. Madison's ; but
to the great body of the president's constituents, it was very acceptable.
It contained a recognition and a decided approbation of the great prin-
ciples and doctrines of the whig politicians and statesmen, and a pledge
to administer the government according to the constitution, as under-
stood by the f ranters of that important instrument, and the early admin-
istrators of the government.

In conclusion, the new president beautifully and forcibly alluded to
the Christian religion, as intimately connected with, and essential to,
the interests of the country. " I deem the present occasion," said he,

Harrison's administration. 377

K sufficiently important and solemn, to justify me in expressing to my
fellow-citizens a profound reverence for the Christian religion, and a
thorough conviction that sound morals, religious liberty, and a just
sense of religious responsibility, are essentially connected with all true
and lasting happiness ; and to that good Being who has blessed us by
the gifts of civil and religious freedom, who watched over and prosper*
ed ihe labors of our fathers, and who has hitherto preserved to us in-
stitutions far exceeding in excellence those of any other people, let us
unite in fervently commending every interest of our beloved country in
all future time."

2. The new senate, having been convened, proceeded,
shortly after the induction of General Harrison into
office, to confirm the nominations made by him, of gen-
tlemen whom he wished to constitute his cabinet.

Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary of State ;
Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury; John Bell, of
Tennessee, Secretary of War ; George E. Badger, of North Carolina,
Secretary of the Navy; John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Attorney
General ; and Francis Granger, of New York, Postmaster General.

3. The new administration had now been organized ;
the party which had come into power were grateful for
the change, connected, as they believed it to be, with a
change of policy, by which the government would be
administered ; they were satisfied with the president ;
with his inaugural address ; with the principles and
pledges which that address contained; they were more
than satisfied with the distinguished names composing
the cabinet counsellors of the president. Thus, all
things were combining to fulfil the nation's joy, and
were full of promise in respect to the future — when, un-
expectedly, rumors of a sad sickness, which had suddenly
fallen upon General Harrison, were spread through the
nation, and before those rumors could have reached the
limits of the country, they were followed by the intelli-
gence of his death!

In one short month from the time he stood on the steps of the
eastern portico of the capitol, lifting his hand to heaven, and swearing
to be faithful to God and his country, he was a pallid corpse in the
National mansion.

On the morning of the 4th of April, the members of the cabinet is
suad the following circular to the nation :

32 *

378 period xv.— 1S41 to 1845.

' An all-wise Providence having suddenly removed from this life
William Henry Harrison, late president of the United States ; we
have thought it our duty, in the recess ot" congress, and in the absence
of the vice-president from the seat of government, to make this afflict-
ing bereavement known to the country, by this declaration, under our
hands.

" He died nt the president's house, in this city, this fourth day of
April, Anno Domini 1841, at thirty minutes before one o'clock in the
moaning.

" The people of the United States, overwhelmed, like ourselves, by aa
event so unexpected and so melancholy, will derive consolation from
knowing that his death was calm and resigned, as his life has been

fiatriotic, useful, and distinguished ; and that the last utterance of his
ips expressed a fervent desire for the perpetuity of the constitution,
and the preservation of its true principles. In death, as in life, the
happiness of his country was uppermost in his thoughts."

Thus ends all human greatness !

" The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Await, alike, the inevitable hour —
The paths of glory lead — but to the grave."

For such a bereavement, the nation was in no wise prepared. It
came upon them with the suddenness of lightning, and as a thunder-
bolt from the hand of Almighty power. The mourning was sincere, as
it was deep and universal. Even political opponents united to do the
deceased president honor. Funeral processions were had in every
principal city ; and funeral orations were pronounced in his favor; or
funeral discourses delivered by the ministers of religion, in which suit-
able admonitions were imparted to the people.

4. The legitimate successor, by the constitution, to the
presidential chair, on the demise of General Harrison,
was John Tyler, of Virginia, who had been elected to the
office of vice-president, at the time the former had suc-
ceeded to that of president, and who now entered upon
the administration of the government.

Mr. Tyler arrived in Washington before the funeral obsequies of
General Harrison, and assumed not only the duties, but also the title,
of president of the United States. At a proper time he recor .mended
a day of public lasting and prayer, on account of the nation s bereave-
ment. This was well received by all classes ; and, when the day
arrived, it was appropriately observed. It was an impressive thought,
that a whole nation was at the same time before the altar of God, re-
cognizing his righteous judgment, in removing a beloved chief magis-
trate.

5. On the 31st of May, 1841, congress assembled in
extra session, in accordance with a proclamation issued
by General Harrison, before his death.

tyler's administration. 379

The first measure adopted, was to establish a uniform system of
bankruptcy throughout the United States. Many thousands of unfor-
tunate debtors needed relief; and the object of the system was to
absolve them from the claims of their creditors, on their relinquishment
of all their property.

A second measure adopted was the repeal of the sub-treasury law,
enacted towards the close of Mr. Van Buren's administration. Period
xiv. sec. 16. „

A third bill passed, providing for the distribution among the severaS
states of the net proceeds of the public lands, according to their popu-
lation.

But the great object of the extra session was the establishment of a
national bank. Such an institution, it was thought by many, was greatly
needed. But the president, having strong objections to it, vetoed two
bills, both of which, but especially the latter, it was thought would
meet his approbation.

These vetoes gave great dissatisfaction to the members of President
Tyler's cabinet, all of whom, excepting Mr. Webster, resigned. Their
places were filled as follows: Walter Forward, Secretary of the Trea-
sury ; John McLean, Secretary of War ; Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of
the Navy ; Hugh S. Legare, Attorney General ; and Charles A. Wick-
clifle, Postmaster General.

6. On the 6th of December following-, the twenty-
seventh congress commenced its second session.

At this session, the census of 1S40, which had been completed, was
exhibited, and showed the population of the United States to be
17,069,453 ; making an increase over the census of 1330, of 4,202,646,
and showing a gain in a ratio exceeding 32i per cent, for the last ten
years.

An act was passed apportioning the representatives among the sev-
eral states, according to the above census. The ratio adopted, was one
representative for every 70,680 inhabitants. *

7. On the 31st of March, 1842, congress being still in
session, Mr. Clay resigned his seat; and, taking an affec-
tionate leave of the senate, retired to private life.

Mr. Clay had been in the service of his country nearly thirty-six
years. But, now. for the last time, he rose to address the senate. The
scene was solemn and impressive. At one time, his voice failed, and
he paused to wipe the tears from his eyes. Few eyes of those present
remained dry. In conclusion, he said: "In retiring, as I am about to
do, forever from the senate, suffer me to express my heartfelt wishes,
that all the great and patriotic ohjects of the wise framers of otir con-
stitution mav be fulfilled, and that the high destiny designed for it may
be fully answered ; and that its deliberations, now and hereafter, may-
eventuate in securing the prosperity of our beloved country, in main-
taining its rights and honors abroad, and upholding its interests at
home." After invoking a blessing on all and each of the members,
he said :

"And, now, Mr. President, and Senators, I bid von a long, a lasting,
and a friendly farewell."

380 period xv.— 1841 to 1845.

8. During the month of June, 1842, the exploring" ex-
pedition returned to the United States, having heen absent
three years and ten months, and having sailed nearly
90,000 miles.

The vessels attached to this expedition left the Capes of the Chesa-
peake, Aug. 19, 1838. After reaching Nassau Bay, in Terra del Fuego,
the Peacock, Porpoise, and two schooners, sailed on a cruise towards
the south pole. The next year, they made a second cruise, and discov-
ered, as they believed, an antarctic continent in lat. 66° 30', long. 16J
east.

During their absence, they surveyed nearly two hundred and eighty
different islands, besides eight hundred miles in Oregon, and one thou-
sand five hundred miles along the icy barrier of the antarctic continent.
The number of sketches of natural scenery brought home was about
five hundred ; the number of portraits about two hundred. Of birds
about one thousand species, and twice that number of specimens, were
collected, besides great numhers of fishes, reptiles, insects, shells, &c.
This expedition was fitted out at a great expense, and its results have
proved highly honorable to the nation which projected, and the officers
who executed it. Several volumes, containing a history of the expe-
dition, with its discoveries, scientific researches, &c, have been pub-
lished at the national expense.

9. On the 20th of August, 1842, an important treaty
with England, the first, it is believed, ever negotiated with
that power in the United States, was ratified by the
senate, by a vote of 39 to 9. By this treaty, the north-
eastern boundary was settled.

The questions relating to this boundary line had, at times, agitated
a both countries for nearly half a century ; and, on several occasions, had
well nigh produced hostilities. But, now, perceiving the importance of
decisive action in relation to it, England commissioned Lord Ashbur-
ton, a gentleman in every respect qualified for the task, to proceed to
America, and institute negotiations, with reference to an amicable anil
final settlement of it. The negotiations were conducted on the part of
the United States, by Daniel Webster, then secretary of state. In a
few months, these able statesmen fixed a divisional line, which has
pr&ved satisfactory to both governments. On the 10th of November,
1842, the president issued his proclamation, announcing that a treaty,
settling the boundary line in question, had been ratified by both govern-
ments.

10. Towards the close of the 2d session of the twenty-
seventh congress, a bill passed making essential altera-
tions in the tariff, or duties paid on goods imported into
the United States. This is known as the tariff of 1S42.

The revenues of the country are chiefly raised by means of such du-
ties • it is necessary, therefore, that they should be graduated so as to

tyler's administration. 381

raise sufficient funds for the government. This is conceded by all par-
ties ; but a portion of the country would limit the tariff to the actual
wants of the government, whatever should become of the manufacturing
interest. On the other hand, this interest claims that, in fixing a tariff
respect should also be had to home industry, and that, if necessary to
foster and protect it, the tariff should so far be discriminating and pro-
tective.

The tariff of 1842 was designed not only to raise revenue, but to
protect such branches of manufacture as could not be sustained without
it. Hence, the bill was powerfully sustained by its friends, and as
strongly opposea by its enemies. It passed both houses of congress,
but the president vetoed it.

This was a severe trial to the friends of the measure ; and? for a
time, they were at a loss how to proceed. But, fortunately, a second
bill was introduced, divested of its objectionable features, and to this
the president gave his sanction.

11. The twenty-seventh congress commenced its 3d
session, December 5, 1842. Two important bills passed ;
one providing for a repeal of the bankrupt law; the
second for promoting friendly intercourse with China.

At the time the bankrupt law was passed, Sec. 5, there existed a
strong sentiment in its favor, throughout the country. But dishonest
men took advantage of it to defraud their creditors. Many concealed
their property, at the same time declaring that they had none. This
brought an otherwise good law into disrepute, and led to its early
repeal.

The act for promoting friendly intercourse with China placed $40,000
at the disposal of the president, to enable him to establish commercial
relations with that government. Under this act, he appointed Caleb
Gushing commissioner, to proceed to China, for the accomplishment of
the above object.

12. On the 8th of June, the president, accompanied
by the secretary of the treasury and the postmaster
general, left Washington upon a visit to Boston, to attend
the celebration of the completion of the Bunker HiU
Monument.

During his progress, he was received with the honors due to the
chief magistrate of a great and powerful nation. The celebration took
place on the 17th. An oration was pronounced by Daniel Webster. It
was a grand and imposing scene. Thousands were gathered to the
spot once moistened by the blood of patriots ; and grateful homage
went up to Him, under whose fostering care the nation enjoyed a
measure of prosperity unknown to any other nation on the globe.

But searcely were the festivities of the occasion ended, when the
melancholy intelligence was circulated, that Mr. Legare, the attorney
general, and acting secretary of state, had suddenly deceased at his
lodgings irvBoston. He had followed the president, to mingle in the

382 period xv.— 1841 to 1845.

joys of the occasion ; but sickness fell upon him, and in a britf space
he was numbered with the dead. He sustained the reputation of a man
of rare endowments, of great acquisitions, and exalted character.

13. On the 8th of July, 1S43, the cabinet of the pres-
ident was reorganized by the appointments of Abel P.
Upshur, Secretary of State ; John C. Spencer, Secretary
of the Treasury ; J. M. Porter, Secretary of War ; C.
A. Wickcliffe, Postmaster General; and John Nelson,
Attorney General.

14. On the 2d of March, a tragical event occurred on
board of the United States steam ship Princeton, during
her return from an excursion down the Potomac, by
which several persons were killed, among whom were
Mr. Upshur, the secretary of state, and Mr. Gilmer,
secretary of the navy.

Captain Stockton, the commander of the ship, had invited the presi-
dent, secretaries, with their families, and several members of congress,
to an excursion down the river. The day was fine ; the company large
and brilliant, probably not less than four hundred of both sexes. Dur-
ing the passage, one of the large guns on board, called the " Peace-
maker," carrying a ball of 225 pounds, was fired several times, exhib-
iting the great power and capacity of that formidable weapon of war.
The ladies had partaken of a sumptuous repast ; the gentlemen had
succeeded them at the table, and some of them had left it. The vessel
was on her return up the river, opposite the fort, when Capt. Stockton
consented to fire another shot from the same gun, around and near
which, to observe its effect, many persons had gathered, though by no
means so many as had witnessed the previous discharge.

The gun was fired. The explosion was followed, before the smoke
cleared away so as to observe its effect, by shrieks of woe, which an-
nounced a dire calamity. The gun had burst three or four feet from
the breech, and scattered death and desolation. Mr. Upshur, secretary
of state, Mr. Gilmer, recently appointed secretary of the navy, Com-
modore Kennon, one of its" gallant officers, Virgil Maxey, lately
returned from a diplomatic residence at the Hague, Mr. Gardiner,
of New York, formerly a member of the senate of that state, were
among the slain. Beside these, seventeen seamen were wounded,
several of them mortally. Others were stunned by the concussion,
among whom were Capt. Stockton, Col. Benton, of the senate, Lieut.
Hunt, of the Princeton, and W. D. Robinson, of Georgetown.

Shortly after the above sad event, Mr. Upshur's place in the depart-
ment of state was supplied by the appointment of John C. Calhoun, of
South Carolina, and the vacancy occasioned by the death of Mr. Gilmer
was filled by the appointment o"f John Y. Mason. % *

15. During the month of May, 1844, three conven-
tions were held in the city of Baltimore, for the^ purpose

tyler's administration. 383

of nominating candidates for the first two offices in the
country, to be voted for in November, 1844.

The first of these was a whig convention, convened May 1. Every
state in the Union was represented. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was
unanimously recommended as the whig candidate for the office of
president. Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, was nominated
for the office of vice-president.

On the 27th of the same month, a democratic national convention
assembled for a similar object. Previous to the meeting, it was gener-
ally expected that Martin Van Buren would be the candidate ; but his
popularity had diminished ; and hence, his opposers succeeded in se-
lecting James K. Polk, of Tennessee. This was effected by requiring
a majority of two-thirds of the delegates present, in iavor of the can-
didate nominated. George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was nominated
for the vice- presidency.

On the same day, in another part of the city, a third national conven-
tion was held. This last nominated John Tyler, as a candidate for the
presidency. But, towards the close of August, Mr. Tyler, finding him-
self supported by but a few, and those few without political influence,
withdrew his name from the list of candidates.

16. The twenty-eighth congress closed its first session
on the 17th of June, and on the 2d of December follow-
ing, again assembled, it being its second session.

17. On the 10th of January, 1845, an important treaty
between the United States and the Chinese Empire was
ratified by the senate, by a unanimous vote.

This treaty was concluded by Caleb Gushing. United States commis-
sioner to China, and Tsiyeng, the governor-general, on the part of the
emperor Taow Kwang, at Hang-Hiya, on the 3d of July, 1844. By
chis treaty, our relations with China were placed on a new footing,
eminently favorable to the commerce and other interests of the United
States.

18. On the 23d of January, a joint resolution for the
annexation of Texas was adopted by the house of repre-
sentatives, by a vote of 118 to 101.

This was in accordance with the wish of the president, and agree-
ably to his recommendation. The measure also met the approbation
of the southern members generally. But, to others, this mode of admit-
ting a territory appeared unconstitutional, and fraught with serious
consequences to the country. It was represented to be an act of injus-
tice to Mexico, and likely to involve the United States in hostilities
with that government — besides greatly increasing the public debt of
the country, and increasing the "area of slavery ;" but the measura
found advocates sufficient to carry it.

19. On the 12th of February, the ceremony of opening

384 period xv.— 1841 to 1845.

and counting the votes of the electors of president and
vice-president of the United States took place, in the
presence of both houses of congress.

Tellers were appointed, as usual, who, having read and counted the
votes, made duplicate lists thereof. These being delivered to the pres-
ident of the senate, he made declaration of the result, viz. : That the
whole number of votes given was 275 ; of which, James K. Polk, of
Tennessee, had 170, and was duly elected president of the United
States, for four years from the fourth day of March ensuing. Henry
Clay, had 105 for the same office. The vote for vice-president stood,
170 for George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania ; for Theodore Freling-
huysen, of New Jersey, 105.

20. On the 4th of March, at half past two in the
morning, the second session of the twenty-eighth con-
gress was brought to a close ; and at the same time was
terminated the presidential career of John Tyler, who
soon retired to his farm in Virginia.

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD XVI.

DISTINGUISHED FOR POLK S ADMINISTRATION.

Extending from the Inauguration of President Polk,
1845, to the Inauguration of Zachary Taylor, as
President of the United States, 1849.

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1845, James K. Polk
was duly inaugurated as president of the United States.

The ceremonies at the capitol, on the occasion, were witnessed by a
large concourse of citizens, both from the vicinity and from a distance.
As is usual, the president elect, on taking the oath of office, delivered
an address, explanatory of his political sentiments, or those funda-
mental principles by which he designed to administer the government
during his presidential term.

Among other things, he expressed himself opposed to a national
bank. He was in favor of a tariff for revenue, and such as would
afford incidental protection to our home manufactures, but opposed to a
tariff for protection merely. He advocated the annexation of Texas.
Our title to Oregon he thought clear and unquestionable, up to 54
degrees, 40 minutes.

2. Soon after his induction into office, the president
proceeded to the formation of his cabinet. The new
senate being in session, he nominated James Buchanan,
of Pennsylvania, as Secretary of State ; Robert J. Walker,
of Mississippi, Secretary of the Treasury ; William L.
Marcy, of New York, Secretary of War ; George Ban-
croft, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy; Cave
Johnson, of Tennessee, Postmaster General, and John Y«
Mason, of Virginia, Attorney General.
33

386 period xvi.— 1845 to 1S47.

3. On the evening of the 8th of June, an event oc-
curred, calculated to make a deep impression on the
people of the United States. This was the death of
General Jackson, who breathed his last, at his residence,
at the Hermitage, Tennessee, in the seventy-ninth year
of his age.

The funeral solemnities took place on Tuesday, the 10th, the Rev.
Dr. Edgar preaching a most impressive and eloquent discourse on the
occasion. After the religious services were ended, the body was con-
veyed to the vault prepared many years before for its reception. Several
thousands of persons were present at the solemn ceremonies, which
were closed by the discharge of three volleys over the grave.

General Jackson was a soldier of dauntless courage, vigor and perse-
verance, and an officer of skill and sagacity. That he was stern and
severe, too stern and severe, his friends admit. That he loved his
country, and wished her prosperity, is acknowledged ; but the measures
which he sometimes pursued during his administration to secure that
prosperity, are thought by some to have been both unwise and some-
times unconstitutional, and to have failed in securing their object.

It is said that he died a Christian. He expressed his belief in the
Gospel, and rested his hopes of pardon and acceptance with God, on
the merits of Jesus Christ. He took an affectionate leave of his family,
expressing his hope that he should meet them in a better world.

The news of his death was everywhere received with due sensibility,
and its announcement followed by appropriate demonstrations of re-
spect, in all parts of the United States.

4. The first session of the twenty-ninth congress
commenced December 1, 1845. The Hon. John W.
Davis, of Indiana, was elected speaker of the house of
representatives.

On the following day, the president transmitted his
message to both houses of congress ; the principal topics
of public interest embraced in, it, related to Texas — to
our relations with Mexico — to Oregon — to the tariff —
to the public lands, and to the sub-treasury.

In regard to Texas, the president informed congress, that the terms
of annexation, which were offered by the United States to that govern-
ment, by the joint resolution of the last congress, had been accepted
by Texas, and that nothing, therefore, remained to consummate that
annexation, but the passage of an act by congress, to admit the state of
Texas into the Union, upon an equal footing \ h the original states.

The president next spoke of our relations with Mexico, " which," he
observed, "have not since the last session, been of the most amicable
character." On account of her refusal to receive Mr. Slidell, who had
Deen appointed to proceed to Mexico, with reference to an adjustment

polk's administration. 0::;?

t>f all difficulties between the two governments, and her otherwise
belligerent conduct, he had ordered a strong squadron on her coast ; and
the army, which had been sent to Texas, to defend her against any
attack which might be made upon her, he had ordered to take a posi-
tion between the Nueces and Del Norte.

The question as to the title of the Oregon territory was still unset-
tled. Three several attempts had been made, in the years 1818, 1824,
and 1826; but the negotiations had failed to accomplish their object.
In 1818, it was agreed between England and America, that the citizens
of each country might settle the country, till it, and occupy it as they
pleased, for ten years. In 1827, this joint occupation was extended for
an indefinite period ; or until one of the parties should give the ether
party one year's notice, in which case the agreement should terminate at
the end of that time. This notice the president advised congress to
make — adding that, " by so doing, at the expiration of a year, we shall
have reached a period when our national rights in Oregon must eithei
be abandoned, or firmly maintained."

He also recommended an alteration of the tariff* of 1842, on the
ground that it furnished so much protection to some branches of in-
dustry, as to operate injuriously to portions of the country — particularly
the south.

He further recommended a revival of the sub-treasury law, which had
been repealed at the extra session of congress, following the death of
General Harrison.

The president also proposed that the public lands should be reduced
to one dollar per acre, and even lower in respect to such lands as had
been long in market.

Such were the views of the executive in regard to these great ques-
tions of national policy. Great differences of opinion existed among
the American people in relation to several of them. It was foreseen
that the public discussion of them would intensely excite the nation,
and great apprehensions were entertained lest hostilities should grow
out of the question pending between the United States and Great
Britain. A war with Mexico at even an earlier day had been predicted,
and the message of the president was not calculated to allay anxiety
respecting it.

•5. In accordance with a recommendation of Mr. Polk,
joint resolutions for the admission of Texas as a state
into the Union, were introduced at an early day of the
session, into the house of representatives. They were
as follows :

" Be it resolved by the senate and house of representatives of the
United Stales of America, in congress assembled, That the state of
Texas shall be' one, and is hereby declared to be one, of the United
States of America, and admitted into the Union on an equal footing
with the original states in all respects whatever.

" Be it further enacted, That until the representatives in congress
shall be apportioned, according to an actual enumeration of the inhab-
itants of the United States, the state of Texas shall be entitled to
;hoose two representatives."

388 . period xvi.— 1845 to 1847.

Four objections of great weight were urged against these resolutions:
1. That to enlarge the boundaries of our government, or the territory
over which our Jaws are now established, would be to endanger the
permanency of our institutions. 2. That the admission of Texas
would extend and perpetuate slavery. 3. That it would lead to a
collision with Mexico ; and 4th, that the process of admission was
unconstitutional.

The friends of annexation, however, deemed the measure wise, just,
safe, and constitutional ; and the resolutions received the support of
a large majority in both houses of congress.

6. In anticipation of further and still more serious
difficulties with. Mexico, the president, some time during1
the winter, directed General Taylor, commanding a body
of troops in Texas, to pass the Nueces, and to concentrate
his forces on the left bank of the Del Norte.

For some months, the above troops had been encamped at Corpus
Christi. This place they left on the 11th of March, 1846, and on the
28th of that month, arrived on the left bank of the Del Norte, opposite
Matamoras. About the same time, a depot was established at Point
Isabel, near the Brazos Santiago, thirty miles in the rear of the encamp-
ment.

These measures, adopted by the president, by which the American
troops passed the Nueces, the houndary claimed by Mexico, were con-
sidered by a large portion ol the people of the United States as
impolitic, if not unjust ; and strongly tending to strengthen the misun-
derstanding already existing between the two governments. At least,
the territory thus occupied was a subject of dispute, and by many its
occupation was deemed a belligerent act.

It was naturally so considered by Ampudia, who was commanding
the Mexican forces at Matamoras, and who notified the American gen-
eral to break up his camp within twenty-four hours, and retire beyond
the Nueces. On the 24th of April, General Arista superseded Ampudia
in command, and forthwith communicated to General Taylor, that " he
considered hostilities commenced, and should prosecute them." On
the same day, a party of dragoons of sixty-three men and officers from
the American camp, who had been despatched up the Del Norte to re-
connoitre, were attacked by a body of Mexican troops. Sixteen were
killed and wounded, and the remainder taken prisoners.

7. For a time following the occupation of the left bank
of the Del Norte, the situation of the American army
was exceedingly critical. Supplies of food were difficult
to be obtained. Communication with Point Isabel was
supposed to be interrupted. The Mexican forces were
increasing. Thus situated, it became necessary to call
for more troops, and to effect a communication with
Point Isabel to obtain supplies. This latter object was

polk's administration. 389

accomplished without meeting with any resistance ; and
on the 7th of May, General Taylor, who had himself
conducted the expedition to Point Isabel, commenced his
return to the camp, opposite Matamoras.

During the absence of General Taylor, the Mexicans made an attack
upon the American works opposite Matamoras, garrisoned by 700 or
800 ; but the latter re/urned the fire with so much effect as to silence,
in a short time, the Mexican batteries. The loss on the American side
was but a single man. The Mexican loss was considerable.

8. On the 8th and 9th of May, occurred the battles of
Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, in which the Amer-
ican arms were signally triumphant.

The object of the Mexicans was to intercept the American general,
and, if practicable, %) prevent his return to his camp. With this in
view, the former had been concentrated at Palo Alto, and here the two
armies met in a battle, which, for five hours, raged in a manner the most
terrible and destructive. The Mexican force exceeded 5000 men, with
seven pieces of artillery and 800 cavalry. The American troops were
2300, with but two eighteen pounders and two light batteries. The
loss of the Americans was comparatively trifling. Two brave officers
were severely wounded, Major Ringgold and Captain Page, the former
of whom soon after died. The loss of the Mexicans, according to the
official report of General Arista, was, in killed, 93 ; wounded and miss-
ing, 142. The American army encamped on the field.

On the following day, General Taylor again moved with his forces
towards his camp opposite Matamoras ; and, on reaching Resaca de la
Palma, a few miles only from his destination, he again encountered the
enemy, and a battle, shorter iii its continuance, but far more severe,
ensued. The Americans were still more triumphant, capturing eight
pieces of artillery, with a large quantity of ammunition ; three stand-
ards, and several hundred prisoners, among whom was General La
Vega. The loss of the Americans in this action exceeded that of the
preceding day. According to the report of General Taylor, in both ac-
tions there were 3 officers and 40 men killed, and 13 officers and 100
men wounded. General Arista reported as killed, officers and men,
154 ; wounded, 205 ; and missing, 156 : making a total of 515.

9. While affairs were thus progressing in the south
between the two contending armies, an intense interest
was kindling up in every part of the United States ; and
while, with but few exceptions, the people regretted the
occurrence of hostilities with Mexico, a general sympa-
thy was felt for the American army, — (intelligence had
not yet been received of the battles of the 8th and 9th of
May,) — environed, as it was supposed to be, by a supe*
rior force, and nearly destitute of supplies.

33*

390 period xvi.— 1S45 to 1847.

Congress now forthwith authorized the president to accept th6 ser-
vices of 50,000 volunteers ; at the same time, measures were adopted to
increase the regular army several thousands.

This provision for an increase of the effective force of the country,
was immediately followed by a proclamation of the president, announc-
ing the existence of war " by the act of the republic of Mexico •" and
calling upon 1: the good people of the United States to exert themselves
in preserving order and in maintaining the authority of the laws, and
in supporting such measures as might be adopted for obtaining a
speedy, a just, and an honorable peace."

10. The winter had been spent by congress in the
discussion of topics of great national interest, of which
the most prominent related to Oregon ; and particularly
to the question arising out of the recommendation of the
president in his annual message, whether the convention
of August 6th, 1827, between the United States and
Great Britain, in relation to the joint occupation of that
territory, should be abrogated by giving to the latter
government the year's notice required by said conven-
tion. _

Since the formation of the government, no question, perhaps, excited
greater interest, or elicited warmer discussion than this. By not a few
it was apprehended that the practical effect of such notice would be a
war between the two governments. The debate took a wide range,
and several were the modes suggested, or the resolutions offered, ac-
cording to the terms in which the notice should be given. But at
length the following form of notice was adopted — (the preamble being
omitted ) :

" Resolved by the senate and house of representatives of the United
States, in congress assembled, That the President of the United States
be, and he is hereby, authorized, at his discretion, to give the British
government the notice required by its said second article, for the abro-
gation of the said convention of the 6th of August, 1827."

It still remained to be known in what spirit this resolution would be
received by her majesty's government ; but it was devoutly desired
that it might lead to a final and harmonious settlement of all ques-
tions pertaining to the territory of Oregon.

And so it resulted, fortunately for the peace of the two powers
immediately concerned, and to the peace of the continental powers of
Europe.

On the 28th of April, the president gave official notice to her majesty,
Queen Victoria, that, "the convention of August 6th, 1827, would ter-
minate at the end of twelve months from and after the delivery of these
presents."

Before the delivery of this notice, however, the subject of an ami-
cable settlement of all questions relating to Oregon had occupied her
majesty's government ; and, on the 18th of May, Mr. M'Lane, our
minister, informed Mr. Buchanan that the British minister at Wash-

polk's administration. 391

higton would soon receive instructions to submit a new and furthei
proposition, on the part of the British government, for a partition of
the territory in dispute.

On the 10th of June, the president made a special and confidential
communication to the senate, informing that body that such a proposal
had been made, and requesting their advice as to the action, which, in
their judgment, it was proper to take in reference to it.

On the 12th of June, the senate advised the president to accept the
proposal of the British government for a convention to settle bounda-
ries, &c, between the United States and Great Britain, west of the
Rocky Mountains. On the 16th of June, the president communicated
a copy of such a convention, or treaty, which was approved by the
senate.

Thus was settled, on the limits of forty- nine degrees and the straits
of Juan de Fuca, a question which had involved the two governments in
discussions for a series of years and which, in its progress, was
threatening the peace and amity of the two nations.

11. Several 'important bills were passed during the
session, among which was a bill to protect the rights of
citizens of the United States residing in Oregon ; a bill
for the establishment of a Smithsonian Institute, for the
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, from
funds, to the amount of about half a million dollars,
which fell to the United States in 1835, left them for
that purpose, by James Smithson, Esq., a generous and
philanthropic Englishman, who died in England in
1826 ; a bill reestablishing the sub-treasury ; a ware-
housing bill ; a bill for the improvement of certain rivers
and harbors within the United States ; and a bill to
indemnify citizens of the United States for French spo-
liations.

The indemnity thus provided for French spoliations was only an act
of justice, and of justice long deferred. They occurred during the
reign of Napoleon, and prior to 1S00. The manner in which the
United States became responsible for these spoliations to American
citizens may be learned from Period xiii., Sections 8, 14, 16.

The two last named bills, to the great regret of persons interested
therein, as well as many others, who desired to see the interests of
navigation advanced and protected, and that numerous class of citizens
indemnified for losses which they had years since sustained by reason
of French depredations, and which, according to agreement, the govern-
ment of the United States were solemnly bound to pay, were vetoed
by President Polk. Loud complaints were uttered against the president
for his course pursued in relation to these bills, which had been dis*
cussed with signal ability, and had received the decided sanction of
both houses of congress.

392 period xvi.— 1845 to 1847.

Towards the close of the session, a hill for the alteration of the tariff
of 1842 passed the house by a majority of nineteen votes ; in the
senate it was carried only by the casting vote of the vice-president.
The tariff of 1S42 was designed, while it furnished revenues for the
government, to protect certain branches of manufactures, which needed
protection ; hence, a larger duty was laid on some than on others, and
this has been the policy of the government from the beginning. Duties
have been discriminating and specific, — i. e., varying according to the
necessity of protection, — and laid on the article without rigid regard
to value. By the tariff of 1S46, this system of protection was aban-
doned, and an ad valorem duty, or a duty according to the value of the
article, substituted. To this alteration the democratic party was
pledged, and their pledge was now redeemed ; but by those who
were satisfied with the tariff of IS42, the alterations proposed by this
bill were strongly condemned. They predicted as a consequence, and
one which could not be avoided, the ruin of some branches of manu-
factures.

12. On the 10th of August, 1846, at noon, congress
brought its long and stirring session to a close. It had
lasted 253 days, or more than two thirds of a year.
During few previous sessions had more important sub-
jects come under debate. It was considered an occasion
of just congratulation that our difficulties with Great
Britain had been amicably adjusted; but matter of se-
rious regret that war should be continued with Mexico.

13. During the summer of 1846, the United States
squadron in the Pacific, under Commodores Sloat and
Stockton, were employed in the subjugation of Cali-
fornia ; and on the 22d of August, the flag of the United
States was flying at every commanding position within
that territory.

Commodore Sloat entered the harbor of Monterey on the 2d of July,
and on the 7th demanded a surrender of the place. This being refused,
an adequate force from the squadron was landed, and, without blood-
shed, took possession of it. On the 9th, Francisco, in like manner,
was taken by Commander Montgomery. These events were soon after
followed by the occupation of the capital itself, Ciudad de los Angelos,
following which, Commodore Stockton issued his proclamation, consti-
tuting a new government, appointing its officers, and declaring himself
governor of the territory, by authority of the president of the United
States.

14. The operations of the "home squadron" were
confined to the capture of several maritime towns in the
Gulf of Mexico — the most important of which were
Tobasco and Tampico.

folk's administration. 393

Two attempts were made by Commodore Conner upon Alvarado, on
the south of the Gulf; but owing to the rapidity of the current, both
failed. In October, Tobasco fell into the hands of Commodore Perry,
and the capture of this was followed, November 12, by the surrender
to Commodore Conner, without resistance, of the still more important
town of Tampico.

15. The military operations were conducted by Gen-
erals Kearney, Wool, and Taylor, who, commanding'
distinct portions of the American army, separately took
possession of New Mexico, Chihuahua, and New Leon.

On the 30th of June, General Kearney, with 1600 men, moved from
Fort Leavenworth upon Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, which he
took on the 13th of August — the Mexican forces, 4000 strong, retiring
with their governor, Arm i jo, without attempting resistance. The
American general proceeded to establish a provisional government, pro-
claiming himself governor, and appointing several civil officers to act
under his authority.

The operations of General Wool were in the provinces of Chihuahua
and Coahuila.

General Taylor having taken Matamoras, with several other places
in that vicinity, his next object was the capture of Monterey, the capi-
tal of New Leon.

On reaching that city, on the 19th of September, it was found to be
strongly fortified. A large work had been constructed, commanding all
the northern approaches, added to which, the bishop's palace and some
heights in its vicinity, near the Saltillo road, had been fortified, and
been occupied with troops and artillery. Believing it practicable, how-
ever, to throw a column on to the Saltillo road, and thus turn the posi-
tion of the enemy, General Worth was directed, with his division, to
make the attempt. On the afternoon of the 20th, he succeeded in occu-
pying a defensive position, just without range of a battery above the
bishop's palace. Early on the morning of the 21st, he gained a position
on the Saltillo road — thus cutting off" the enemy's line of communica-
tion. From this position, the two heights south of the Saltillo road
were carried in succession, and the gun taken in one of them was
turned upon the bishop's palace. On the 22d, the heights above the
palace were taken ; soon after which the palace itself surrendered.

During the night of the 22d, the enemy evacuated nearly all his
defences in the lower part of the city. On the morning of the 23d, the
America?! troops advanced from house to house, and from square to
square, until they reached a street but one square in rear of the princi-
pal plaza, in and near which the enemy's force was mainly concen-
trated.

Early on the 24th, the Mexican general, Ampudia, proposed to evac-
uate the town : a suspension of hostilities was arranged till 12 o'clock,
during which, at the request of Ampudia, General Taylor had an inter-
view with him, which resulted in a capitulation of the place, the Mex-
ican forces having leave to retire. These forces consisted, besides
forty-two pieces of mounted cannon, of 7000 troops of the line, and
2000 irregulars. The American force was 425 officers, and 6220 men.

394 period xvi.— 1S45 to 1847.

Their artillery was small hut efficient. Their loss was estimated a.
103 killed ; 31 officers, and 337 wounded. The loss of the Mexicans
was still more considerable. An armistice of eight weeks was allowed
by General Taylor, subject to be revoked by either government. On
receiving intelligence of this armistice and its conditions, the American
government directed its immediate termination. The Mexican army
was permitted to retire, and marched out with the honors of war.
The capture of Monterey was considered a bold and daring achieve-
ment, and added to the already acquired honors of the hero of Palo Alto
and Resaca de la Palma.

16. The 2d session of the twenty-ninth congress was
opened in due form, on the 7th of December, 1846; soon
after which, President Polk communicated his annual mes-
sage, which was chiefly devoted to a justification of the
Mexican war, and of the part which he had acted in
relation to it.

" The wrongs which we have suffered from Mexico," said the presi-
dent, " ever since she became an independent power, and the patient
endurance with which we have borne them, are without a parallel in
the history of modern civilized nations." These wrongs, according to
the message, consisted of seizures and confiscations of merchant ves-
sels ; insults to our national flag; neglect to fulfil promises and stipu-
lations solemnly made and often repeated ; rejection of an accredited
minister, &c. &c. To the charge of injuries and insults to the United
States, thus solemnly made, no one could reasonably object, — it was all
true ; but that these presented a just cause of war was not so clear in
the view of many even of the friends of the administration ; while its
opposers were firm in the conviction that such a terrible resort for
redress was both needless and unjust. Mexico was guilty of wrong,
but it was her tyrannical and factious rulers who had perpetrated that
wrong, and not her uninfluential and oppressed citizens. It was further
urged that if cause of war did exist, it belonged to congress " to decide
upon the time, the mode, and the measure of redress " to be had from
Mexico ; while the whole duty of the president would have been ful-
filled in laying the subject before that body, and recommending the
measure, if he deemed such measure expedient.

At an earlier day, the president had directed the officers of the
blockading squadron on the coast of Mexico not to obstruct the return
of Santa Anna to Mexico from Havana, should he attempt to do so.
This chieftain, it is well known, had been banished from Mexico, but
was now, it was supposed, on the eve of his return, once more to take
part in her distracted affairs. Believing Santa Anna to be favorable to
a peace between the United States and Mexico, the president gave the
above order ; and for so doing, by many he was severely censured, as
he did not and could not know with certainty the dispositions of that
artful and changeful man ; but still more was he censured for thus
giving publicity to his object, thereby rendering it necessary for Santa
Anna, in order to convince his countrymen of his patriotism, to act ia
entire contrariety to the expectation of the president.

polk's administration. 395

17. The principal acts of Congress, of a public na-
ture, during its session, naturally had reference to the
war with Mexico, and to the adoption of such measures,
regarding men and money, as were deemed necessary to
its successful prosecution.

The army was ordered to be increased by the enlistment of ten
additional regiments, with an appropriate number of officers, general
and subordinate ; the naval power and operations were to be enlarged,
and still more diversified ; munitions of war and supplies for the army
were liberally voted ; treasury notes, and a loan to the amount of
twenty-eight millions, were allowed to be issued and negotiated. An
act was also passed for the admission of Iowa as a state into the union.
Joint resolutions of thanks were also passed to General Taylor, and
the officers and soldiers under his command, for their bold and heroic
conduct in storming the city of Monterey.

18. But the most exciting subject of the session had
relation to an appropriation of three millions of dollars,
recommended by the president to be employed by him
in such manner as he pleased, in securing a peace with
Mexico.

To such an appropriation it was strenuously objected, that it was
contrary to the constitution, inasmuch as that authorized appropriations
orJy for specific objects ; beside that it was inexpedient, and bad
as a precedent, to intrust so larg'e a sum to a president of the United
States, without knowing in what manner he would use it. On the
other hand, it was urged that such a sum might be of great importance
in securing a peace — in hastening that desired object, and in the
acquisition of certain portions of the Mexican territory important to the
interests of the United States.

To this resolution an amendment was offered by a member of the
house, by the name of Wilmot, and hence called the " Wilmot Pro-
viso," which excluded slavery from all territory which might be ac-
quired by the United States from Mexico, either by conquest or treaty.

The subject of this appropriation and proviso gave birth to long and
exciting debate in both houses of congress — the members from the slave-
holding states advocating the appropriation, but opposing the proviso ;
while members from the non-slaveholding states insisting that if the
one was adopted the other should accompany it. On taking the vote in
the house, both the appropriation and the proviso were adopted. By
the senate the proviso was rejected; and the resolution, on being
returned to the house thus amended, a number of members from
the non-slaveholding states were influenced to change their former
votes sufficient to carry it shorn of the proviso. Such an issue was
most unexpected to the friends of freedom throughout the United
States. It remained, however, still to be determined, on the final set-
tlement of our difficulties with Mexico, whether any of her territory
shall come under the sway of our republican institutions; and if so.
whether it shall be free from, or incumbered with, the institution ot
slavery.

396 period xvi.— 1845 to 1849.

19. The capture of Monterey having been effected,
several months were spent in the occupation of Victoria,
the capital of Tamaulipas, Saltillo, the capital of Coa-
huila, and neighboring places. On the 31st of January,
1847, General Taylor, with less than 5000 troops, (the
main portion of his army having been ordered to join
General Scott,) proceeded 65 miles, from Monterey to Sal-
tillo, now garrisoned by General Worth; reaching which,
he advanced to Buena Vista, 11 miles beyond. Here,
on the 23d of February, occurred the famous battle of
that name, in which General Santa Anna, at the head
of more than 20,000 troops, was signally defeated.

On reaching Saltillo, February 2, General Taylor proceeded 20 miles
further, taking a position at Agua Nueva. But as the camp at this
place was deemed. insecure, he fell back upon Buena Vista.

At this latter place, the enemy appeared on the morning of the 22d.
To a haughty demand from Santa Anna to General Taylor, to surren-
der, the latter returned a characteristic refusal. At sunrise the follow-
ing day, the armies became engaged in a warm and sanguinary con-
test ; nor did it cease but with the close of the day. Both armies
rested on the field. Before morning, the Mexicans withdrew, leaving
behind 300 killed; the wounded amounted to 1500. Few victories,
whether in ancient or modern times, -have been more complete. The
loss of the Americans, in officers, was severe — 28 being killed, among
whom may be mentioned as conspicuous, not only for their grade, but
for their skill and bravery, Capt. George Lincoln, Acting Assistant
Adj. Gen., Cols. Hardin, McKee, and Yell, and. Lieut. Col. Clay;
the last a son of the distinguished American statesman of that name.

The victory of Buena Vista secured to the Americans the quiet
possession of the northern provinces of Mexico proper ; consequently,
active operations in this quarter ceased ; and some months after, Gen-
eral Taylor, leaving General Wool in command at Monterey, returned
to the United States, to receive the admiration and honor to which he
was justly entitled.

20. During the month following the battle of Buena
Vista, the Americans, under General Scott, achieved a
signal victory over the Mexicans, (March 26th-29th,) in
the capture of Vera Cruz, their principal sea-port in the
Gulf of Mexico, and the Castle of San Juan d'Ulloa,
situated on an island in the vicinity of the city

The American force employed in this memorable siege, amounted
to 13,000 men, many of whom were taken from the army of General

folk's administration. 397

Taylor, as noticed above, which will serve to explain the reason of the
small number which the latter had at the battle of Buena Vista.

The rendezvous of the invading army was the island of Lesbos, 125
miles from Vera Cruz. From this point they were conveyed by a
squadron under Commodore Connor. The landing was effected on the
2d of March, and the city invested on the 13th. The garrison refusing
to surrender, a tremendous bombardment of the city was commenced,
on the night of the ISth, with seven mortars in battery, which soon
after was increased to ten. About the same time two steamers and
five schooners opened abrisk fire, which continued, with intermissions,
up to 9 o'clock on the following morning. On the 23d, at daylight, a
naval battery of three 32-pounders, and three eight-inch Paixhanguns,
— which the previous day had been transported from the ships, with
incredible difficulty, a distance of three miles, and over a sandy and
difficult route, to a commanding height within 700 yards of the city, —
was prepared to open its terrible fire on the unsuspecting place. The
destruction caused by these guns was fearfully great.

Early on the morning of the 26th — the work of destruction having
been completed — the governor offered to surrender. By the terms of
capitulation the garrison were to be considered prisoners of war, and
all the materiel of war, and all public property, were to belong to the
United States. The 4000 troops belonging to the Mexican army were
dismissed upon their parole of honor. Not less than 6700 shot and
shells were thrown by the American batteries — weighing, in the ag-
gregate, more than 400,000 pounds. " No power of language," says a
writer, " can portray the sufferings, agony, despair, and helpless misery,
which the inhabitants of Vera Cruz endured for five days and nights
previous to the cessation of hostilities." The number of killed and
wounded can never be ascertained.

21. The reduction of Vera Cruz, and its adjoining
fortress, was followed, on the ISth of April, by an en-
gagement between American troops under General Scott,
and Mexican forces under General Santa Anna, at a
mountain pass called Cerro Gordo, on the road to Jalapa,
60 miles from. Vera Cruz.

The heights or cliffs near this pass had been so strongly fortified by
Santa Anna, that a front attack of them was exceedingly hazardous,
if not impossible. Fortunately, the American general was able, by
means of a third road, to turn the enemy's position on the left flank,
and thus secure one of his fortifications. This was successfully em-
ployed against that which adjoined, ancfto one height after another
was taken, until the whole were in possession of the Americans ; and
the Mexicans, to the number of 3000, were made prisoners. Besides
these, five generals were added to the American triumph.

As for Santa Anna, he effected his escape on a mule taken from his
carriage, which latter was left behind. In or near it was found
his cork leg, he having had his limb shot off in a battle some years
before.

398 period xvi. — 1845 to 1849.

22. The battle of Cerro Gordo was soon followed by
the occupation of Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla, at which
last place the army rested for some time and recruited.

Jalapa was surrendered to the Americans without resistance ; and
from Perote, distant from Jalapa some 50 miles, the Mexican troops
were withdrawn. The castle or fortress of Perote was considered one
of the strongest in Mexico. Large quantities of military stores and
munitions of war were found within its walls.

Next, an advance was made upon Puehla, a walled and fortified city
of some 50 or 80,000 inhabitants. A spirited opposition was here
anticipated, but the effort of Santa Anna, with a body of lancers, was
feeble and ineffectual. In this city General Scott established his head
quarters, where, for some time, he rested his army, while Santa Anna
proceeded toward the capital.

23. General Scott having- at leno-th received a small
reinforcement, broke up his camp at Puebla, and, on the
7th of August, commenced his march toward the me-
tropolis ; in his progress thither, occurred, on the 20th
of August, the celebrated battle of Contreras, in which
the Americans were decidedly victorious. The Amer-
ican force which marched from Puebla was 10,728, while
3000 were left in hospital, and as a garrison under
Colonel Childs.

On the third day after leaving Puebla, the army reached the summit
of the Cordilleras, when the grand valley of- Mexico burst upon their
gaze in all its glory. Lakes, plains, cities, and cloud-capped moun-
tains spreading around and beneath, rendered the prospect enchanting.
" Far to the left was descried the giant peak of Popocatapetl ; before
them lay the Lake Tezcuco ; and beyond, the domes and towers of the
Montezumas."

On the 1 lth, the advance, under command of General Twiggs, reached
Ayotla, north of Lake Chalco, fifteen miles from the capital. Between
this and the city, by the Vera Cruz road, was a strong fortification,
called El Penon, eight miles from Mexico, and which was deemed im-
pregnable. Taking advantage of a concealed road, this fortification
was avoided, and the army at length encamped at St. Augustine, on
the Acapulco road. Between this point and the city was the for-
tress of Antonia, and a mile and a half further north, the strongly for-
tified hill of Churubusco. In the neighborhood of the encampment
was Contreras, which was occupied by General Valencia with 6000
Mexican troops, and defended by 22 heavy guns. A little past mid-
night, on the morning of the 20th, a portion of the American army,
4,500, engaged the Mexican force.

In 17 minutes the camp of the latter was carried, and 83 Mexican
officers and 3000 men were made prisoners. 33 pieces of artillery
were captured, and 700 of the enemy were killed.

polk's administration. 399

Of the pieces of artillery captured, two were brass six-pounders which
had been taken by the Mexicans at the battle of Buena Vista. They
were received by the victors of Contreras with shouts of joy, in which
the commander-in-chief most heartily participated.

24. The victory of Contreras was followed the same
day by other brilliant achievements, viz., the forcing of
San Antonia, the battle of Churubusco, the capture of
the enemy's citadel, and another victory achieved by
General Shields, in the rear of Churubusco.

We cannot attempt a particular description of these several engage-
ments. Suffice it to say, that the forcing of San Antonia was accom-
plished chiefly by General Worth's division.

Next followed the attack on Churubusco — a hamlet bearing ibis
name, which, with a convent, had been strongly fortified. Within
supporting distance of these works were the whole of the remaining
forces of Mexico, some 27,000 men. All these defences were succes-
sively carried, notwithstanding that the Mexicans fought with a bravery
and determination proportioned to the magnitude of their cause. In
these several battles, 32,000 Mexicans had been engaged and defeated.
3000 prisoners, including eight generals, had been taken, and 205 other
officers. 4000 of all ranks had been killed or wounded, and 37 field-

Eieces had been captured. The loss of the Americans was 1053 in
illed and wounded. Of the killed, sixteen were officers, and of the
wounded sixty.

25. The victories thus achieved presented an easy
access to the capital, which might have been occupied
the same evening ; but at this point .General Scott decided
to halt his army, for the purpose of allowing Mr. Trist,
a Commissioner from the United States, to effect, if
possible, an adjustment of difficulties with the Mexican
government; and, with this object in view, an armistice
was proposed and agreed upon.

Some time previously, the president of the United States deputed
Nicholas P. Trist, Esq., to proceed to Mexico to effect a treaty with
that government. The present was deemed a fit moment to accomplish
that object, ere the victors entered the city. Accordingly, the com-
mander-in-chief decided to pause and await the action of the Mexican
counsellors. On the 24th of August an armistice was agreed upon.
This was followed by consultations between Mr.' Trist and Mexican
Commissioners, in relation to terms of peace.

26. The armistice having, however, been repeatedly
violated by the Mexicans, and the negotiations having

400 period xvi. — 1S45 to 1849.

failed, General Scott entered anew upon a spirited pros-
ecution of the war ; and the first important event which
occurred was the battle of Molino del Key, or the King's
Mill.

Molino del Rey was within a little more than a mile of Tacubaya,
the head-quarters of General Scott. The battle occurred on the 8th
September. In this action, Santa Anna commanded in person. It
continued two hours, and was attended with great loss on both sides,
but resulted in the triumph of the American arms.

27. One further object only remained to be secured,
in order to an easy access to the capital — the reduction
of the fortress of Chapultepec, the bombardment of which
was commenced on the morning of the 12th of Septem-
ber, and which capitulated the following day.

Chapultepec is a natural and isolated mound, or hill, of great ele-
vation, and was strongly fortified at its base and on its acclivities and
heights. Here was now the military school of Mexico.

On the night of the 11th of September, General Scott erected four
heavy batteries, bearing on the fortress. On the morning of the 12th
the bombardment was commenced, and continued on the 13th. The
Mexicans resisted, with stubborn obstinacy, and yielded at length only
from dire necessity. The officer who had the honor of striking the
Mexican flag from the walls, and planting the American standard was
Major, afterwards Colonel Seymour, of the New England Regiment,
soon after he had succeeded the gallant Colonel Ransom, who fell while
leading his troops up the heights of Chapultepec. Thus the fate of this
fortress was sealed, and access to the city opened to the American
army.

28. On the day following the fall of Chapultepec, Sep-
tember 14th, the American army realized the object of
their long and eventful march — the occupation of the
capital of the Mexican empire.

At four o'clock on the morning of the 14th, a deputation from the
city council waited upon General Scott, demanding terms of capitu-
lation in favor of the church, the citizens, and the municipal authority.
These demands were promptly met -and denied. Generals Worth and
Quitman were directed to move forward — the one to the Alameda, and
the other to the Grand Plaza, where were now reared, above the Na-
tional Palace of Mexico, the stars and stripes of the American Republic*.

Soon after, the commander-in-chief made his grand entrance, with a
suitable escort of cavalry. He was welcomed on the Plaza by the
victorious army, and here, with his companions in arms, took formal
possession of the now conquered city of the Aztecs. On the 16th, the

polk's administration. 401

army was directed to offer public and private thanks to God for victory.
On the 19th, martial law was proclaimed, in consequence of disturb-
ances occasioned by 2000 convicts liberated by the flying government
the night before.

29. Before the entrance of the American forces into
the city, Santa Anna retired. Gathering a small force,
he proceeded to the neighborhood of Puebla, then under
command of Colonel Childs, which he invested, and
attempted to retake ; but in this attempt, as in his other
enterprises, he signally failed.

The city of Puebla had been placed in command of Colonel Childs,
as already noticed, on the march of the American army towards Mex-
ico, with a force of 400 men ; while the hospitals at that place were
filled with 1800 sick. On the night of the 22d, Santa Anna laid siege to
the place, which he continued for 30 days and 30 nights. During this
time, the troops and the sick endured almost, every possible degree of
suffering. At length, however, assistance came to their relief. Gen.
Lane, with 3000 recruits, reached Puebla on the 13th of October, at
1 o'clock ; immediately upon which, he entered the city, and forced the
enemy to retire.

30. Following the capture of Mexico, two other engage-
ments took place between the American and Mexican
forces — the one at Huamantla, on the 9th of October, and
the other at Atlixco, on the 18th, in both of which the
Americans were the victors.

In both these actions General Lane commanded the American troops.
The Mexicans were led by Santa Anna, in person. In the battle
of Huamantla the gallant Captain Samuel H. Walker, of the American
mounted riflemen, fell, mortally wounded. The Mexican Colonel, La
Vega and Major Iturbide, son of the former chief of the republic, were
taken prisoners.

The battle of Atlixco was fought ten leagues from Perote. During
this action, but one American was killed, and one wounded. The
Mexican loss was 219 killed, and 300 wounded.

From this time, Santa Anna was abandoned by his troops, and soon
resigned his offices.

31. The occupation of the city of Mexico by the
American army, may be considered as essentially ter-
minating the war. To the Mexicans, this event was as
humiliating as it was unexpected.' It crushed their
hopes and paralyzed their efforts; leaving to them no

34^

402 period xvi. — 1845 to 1849.

rational prospect of longer successfully continuing the
struggle.

32. On the 2d of February, 1848, a treaty was signed
by Mr. Trist and Mexican Commissioners, at Guada-
lupe Hidalgo. Twenty days afterwards, the treaty was
adopted, with alterations, by the President of the United
States, and Senate.

Antecedently to the signing of this treaty by Mr. Trist and the Mexi-
can Commissioners, the powers of the former had been revoked by the
American executive. Notwithstanding this revocation, and his recall,
Mr. Trist presumed to act in the existing emergency, and had the ap-
probation of General Scott. As the treaty had undergone important
modifications by the American government, President Polk appointed
Mr. Sevier, of the Senate, and Mr. Clifford, Attorney General, to proceed
to Q,ueretaro, the seat of the Mexican Congress, to explain the modifi-
cations made, and to procure the ratification, in which they were
successful.

33. The ratified treaty was announced to the Ameri-
can people by the President's proclamation, bearing date
July 4th ; thus coinciding with that of the declaration
of American Independence.

The most important stipulations of this treaty were the following.
1st. That the American armies should evacuate Mexico within,- three
months. 2d. That for territory gained, the American government
should pay to Mexico three millions of dollars, in hand, and twelve
millions in four annual instalments, besides assuming her debts to
American citizens to the amount of three millions and a half more.
3d. That the limits, as relate to Mexico, should begin at the month of
the Rio Grande, thence to proceed along the deepest channel of that
river, to the southern boundary of New Mexico ; thence th^y should
follow the river Gila to the river Colorado ; thence straight to the
Pacific, at a point ten mile? south of San Diego.

34. On the 23d of February, 1848, John Quincy
Adams, a former president of the United States, greatly
distinguished for his learning, philanthropy, and patri-
otism, expired at Washington, at the advanced age of 81
years, while attending to his duties in the national legis-
lature, of which he was a member.

Mr. Adams was suddenly struck by a fatal paralysis during the
debates in the house of representatives. He was removed to the
speaker's room, where, on the 23d, he expired, uttering, shortly before

pole's administrations 403

his death, in the presence of relatives and several congressional asso-
ciates, the brief but impressive sentence, " This is the last of earth."
He had long been characterized as " the old man eloquent." For more
than sixty years he had been employed in the service of his country ;
and in the various important stations which he had filled, whether at
home or abroad, he had honored himself and honored his country.

35. The territory of Wisconsin was admitted into the
American Union as a State, on the 29th of May, 1848.

Wisconsin was so named from the river of the same name, when a
territorial government was formed, in 1836.

36. The territories of New Mexico and Upper Califor-
nia, acquired by conquest, during the war with Mexico,
are said to contain two millions of square miles. By
many they were considered, at the time of the conquest, as
of comparatively little value to the United States, except-
ing the Bay of San Francisco on the Pacific, as a harbor
for our ships. Since their acquisition, however, Cali-
fornia has become an object of great interest and attrac-
tion, from its mineral wealth, especially its gold. Nearly
the whole civilized world were astonished' by its reported
golden treasures, and thousands upon thousands set forth
for this western El Dorado.

New, or Upper, California was discovered by Sir Francis Drake, in
1579, at which time he took possession of the country in the name of
Elizabeth, the then reigning sovereign of England, calling it New
Albion. The right of the English to the country, however, was lost,
as they. neglected to colonize it.

At an earlier period, 1536, Cortes, under Spanish authority, had
discovered Old California. About 1603, Sebastian Viscaino discovered
and took possession of the harbors of Diego and Monterey. The first
permanent settlement was commenced in 1769, about 80 years since,
by a colony of priests, of the Franciscan order. Subsequently, other
places, as Ciudad de los Angeles, and St. Francisco, were settled.
Up to 1840, neither of these places had a thousand inhabitants.

When Mexico became a federal republic, California was erected
into a territorial government ; at the breaking out of the war between
the United States and Mexico, Senor de Castro was the military
governor, and Los Angeles, containing 1500 inhabitants, was its capital.
At this time a few American emigrants had penetrated as far as the
rich valley of the Sacramento, where they were found by Colonel Fre-
mont, during his exploration of that country.

California is separated into two divisions by a range of mountains
called the Sierra Nevada, or snowy ridge, which stretches along the
coast at the general distance of 150 *niles from it. East of this
range, and between the Sierra and the Rocky Mountains, is the great

404 period xvi. — 1845 to 1849.

Basin of California, in which lies the territory of Deseret, settled by
the Mormons after they were driven from Nauvoo, and who are quite
numerous and prosperous. To the west of this range are the valleys
of San Joaquin and the Sacramento, which are watered by the rivers
of the same name. They rise at opposite ends of these valleys ; and,
at length meeting, enter the bay of St. Francisco together. The
greatest point of interest in this "newly acquired territory, is the val-
ley of Sacramento, which is distinguished for its gold deposits, or
"placers," as they are called. The first discovery of these deposits
was made in February, 1848, while the treaty with Mexico was yet
pending. It was accidental, upon the land of a Captain Sutter.

Such a discovery could not long be concealed ; the news spread from
country to country, exciting the most intense interest, and kindling
in the bosoms of thousands an irrepressible desire to secure a portion
of these reported treasures. It is impossible, perhaps, at present, to
state with accuracy the number of vessels which have been freighted
with emigrants and stores for this western El Dorado. Francisco has
become a populous and important place. Millions of gold have already
been gathered. New deposits are almost daily discovered, and in
widely separated localities. Notwithstanding that thousands have
already died, thousands are continually nocking to the country, and
are helping to swell the population, which, according to the best esti-
mates, exceeds one hundred thousand souls.

37. On the 7th of Novemher, according to the requi-
sitions of the act of Congress of January 23d, 1845, all
the states of the Union voted, for the first time, on the
same day, for electors of President and Vice-President.
On the 6th of December following, the electors in the
several states met at their respective capitals, and voted
for President and Vice-President. Their votes were
counted in the presence of both houses of Congress, on
the 25th of January, when it appeared that Zachary
Taylor, of Louisiana, and Millard Filmore, of N. York,
were elected to these important offices, for four years,
from March 4th, 1849.

The opposing candidates were, Louis Cass, of Michigan, and
William O. Butler, of Kentucky. The whole number of electoral votes
was 290, of which General Taylor and Mr. Filmore had each 163.
General Cass and Mr. Butler had each 127.

38. The second session of the 30th congress ended
on March 3d, 1849.

The principal acts of the session were the erection of Minesota into
a territory ; the creation of a new department, called the " Home De-
partment," designed to relieve the state and treasury departments ;
and the extension of the revenue laws over Upper California.

UNITED STATES

PERIOD XVII.

DISTINGUISHED FOR TAYLOR'S ADMINISTRATION.

Commencing with the Inauguration of President Taylor,
in 1S49, and embracing the most important events to
the year 1850.

Sec. 1. The 4th of March falling on the Sabbath, the
Inauguration of General Taylor took place on the 5th,
with the usual imposing ceremonies.

It was an occasion of great rejoicing, when the hero of Buena Vista
stood on that spot, on the eastern portico of the national capitol, where
had stood Jefferson, Madison and others, and, baring his head, took
the prescribed oath to support the constitution, which was adminis-
tered to him by Chief Justice Taney.

The inaugural address of General Taylor, like all his official commu-
nications to government while in the field, was brief — shorter than
any similar address by any other president, except Mr. Madison.
To a majority of the people it proved quite satisfactory, and in England
was pronounced an eloquent production. Previous to his election
General Taylor had declined all pledges, excepting the assurance to
the nation that he would never be the president of a party, but, if
elected, would endeavor to bring back the government to the spirit of
the constitution, as understood and administered by Washington.
Other pledges than this he now declined, standing as he did before
God and the nation ; but this pledge he was ready to renew. " In the
discharge of these duties," said he, " my guide will be the constitu-
tion, which I this day swear to preserve, protect, and defend."

2. On the following day the President proceeded to
the formation of his cabinet, which was constituted as
follows: — John M. Clayton, Delaware, Secretary of
State ; William M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, Secretary
of the Treasury; Thomas Ewing, Ohio, Secretary of
the Home Department ; George W. Crawford, Georgia,
Secretary of War ; William B. Preston, Virginia, Secre-

406 • PERIOD XVII.

tary of the Navy ; Jacob Collamer, Vermont, Postmaster-
general ; Reverdy Johnson, Maryland, Attorney General.

3. On the 15th of June, 1849, Ex-President Polk died,
at his residence, Nashville, Tennessee, aged 54.

Mr. Polk was a native of Mecklenburgh County, N. C, where he
was horn on the 2d of November, 1795. His father was an enterpris-
ing farmer. His career at the university is said to have been dis-
tinguished. At the early age of thirty he became a member of
Congress. " He was a warm supporter of Mr. Jefferson, and, through
life, a firm and undeviating democrat." For a time he presided over
Congress as its speaker ; subsequently he served as governor of Tennes-
see for two years. In 1845 he was elevated to the presidency. His
administration was signalized by many important events. Yet, it
cannot be said to have been popular, even with the party to which he
owed his elevation. Towards the close of his term, few, if any,
seriously advocated his reelection.

He was cut off, as it were, in the midst of his days ; and when, at
the close of an administration replete with toil and anxiety, he was
naturally looking forward to the enjoyment of repose among his friends
and in the bosom of his family.

4. During the year 1849, the United States were
again visited by the cholera, which was most violent in
the valley of the Mississippi, but which had nearly ceased
its ravages before 1850.

In the course of this year also the temperance cause received a great
stimulus by the arrival here of an Irish Roman Catholic priest, called
Father Mathew, who, after having given the abstinence pledge to over
three million persons in his own country, visited the United States,
and is said to have administered it, between the time of his arrival
and the year 1850, to at least 175.000 persons in this country.

In the year 1849, President Taylor promptly and effectually, by
means of a naval force of the government, dispersed a multitude of per-
sons collected at an island in the Gulf of Mexico, with the design to
invade Cuba, belonging to Spain, with whom we were at peace.
During the same year, there commenced among the Canadians them-
selves, the agitation of the peaceable secession from their mother coun-
try, and either the admission to our Union, or the establishment of a
separate government.

5. Upon the assembling of Congress for the session
1849 — 50, the message of President Taylor adverted to
various measures for the good of the country ; and he
referred particularly to matters of great national interest,
a ship canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and
a railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. He expressed
his approval of these measures, and recommended that

Taylor's administration. 407

the use of these routes be guarantied to all nations, that
the works might be a " bond of peace" between them.
He recommended also the examination of lines of com-
munication, within the territory of the United States,
from the navigable waters of the Atlantic or the Gulf of
Mexico to the Pacific Ocean.

President Taylor ended his message with an appeal to the patriotism
of the people and their love for the Union, in the following language : —

" Our government can only be preserved in its purity by the suppres-
sion and the entire elimination of every claim or tendency of one co-
ordinate branch to encroachment upon another. With the strict observ-
ance of this rule and the other injunctions of the Constitution ; with a
sedulous inculcation of that respect and love for the union of the
States, which our fathers cherished and enjoined upon their children,
and with the aid of that overruling Providence which lias so long and
so kindly guarded our liberties and institutions, we may reasonably
expect to transmit them, with their innumerable blessings, to the
remotest posterity.

" But attachment to the union of the States should be habitually fos-
tered iu every American heart. For more than half a century, during
which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood un-
shaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the
grave ; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory, and
the object of affection and admiration with every one worthy to bear the
American name.

"In my judgment, its dissolution would be the greatest of calami-
ties, and to avert that should be the study of every American. Upon
its preservation must depend our own happiness and that of countless
generations to come. Whatever dangers may threaten it, I shall stand
by it and maintain it in its integrity, to the full extent of the obliga-
tions imposed, and the power conferred upon me by the Constitution."

6. In the session of 184.9 — 50, the most intense inter-
est was excited among the members of Congress and the
people of the country, by the discussions, in the Senate
and House of Representatives, of the slavery question,
and in regard to the admission of California into the
Union, as a state, and the organization of the Territories,
formed out of the tract of country ceded to us by Mexico.
One party claimed that slavery should be forbidden in
the new states and territories, and the other that no such
clause should be introduced in regard to them.

The Constitution of California, as a state, under and with which she
applied for admission to the Union, contained a provision against
slavery. At the commencement of the year 1850, these matters were
a source of serious embarrassment to national legislation, and

408 PERIOD XVII.

still undecided, and continued so for succeeding months of the session,
affording an opportunity for several of the most distinguished states-
men of the country to explain their sentiments, in Congress, in relation
to the absorbing topic referred to, and their regard for the interests of
the whole country, by eloquent speeches, some of which will hereafter
be deemed historically important, elucidating, as they do, the interest
felt in these subjects, and the different views and feelings of those who
represented the various sections of the country at the Capitol. *

7. On the 31st of March, 1850, died, at Washington,
Jdhn C. Calhoun, at the time of his decease Senator in
Congress from South Carolina, aged 68.

There are few statesmen whose names have been more intimately
connected with the political history of the country than Mr. Calhoun.
His career of public service extended over nearly half a century, — an
eventful period, during Avhieh he exerted a powerful influence over the
policy of the nation. He entered Congress previous to the last war
with Great Britain, [described in Period X.,J as representative from
South Carolina, since which time he has been almost uninterruptedly
connected with public affairs and measures, having successively filled
the offices of Representative, Senator, Secretary of War, Vice Presi-
dent, and Secretary of State, the duties of which offices he performed
with ability and stern integrity. The highest honors were paid to his
memory.

THE

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA;

Framed by a convention of delegates, of which Washington was the president,
which met at Philadelphia, from the slates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia — and adopted 17th September,
1787.

NOTE. — The author has given, at pages 233 and 234, an abstract of the Constitution of the
United States ; but deeming- it important that the youth of our country should be made
acquainted with its several requirements and provisions as thoroughly as possible, it has been
inserted here, at length.

PREAMBLE.

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Objects,
union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide for the
common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this
constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I.
SECTION I.
1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress Legisiai-
of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of rep- iTe Power»
resentatives.

SECTION II.

1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members House of
chosen every second year by the people of the several states ; and the ReP-
electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors

of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained Qualifies
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citize'n of the ^ons of
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of p"
that state in which he shall be chosen.

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the Apportit a
several states which may be included within this union, according to ""ent °<
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the P'
whole number of free persons, including tfhose bound to service for a

term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years
after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law
direct.. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative;

410

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Vacancies,
how filled.

Speaker,
how ap-
pointed.

No. of Sen.
from each
ctate.

Classifica-
tion of
Sen.

and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of Netc Hamp-
shire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts eight; Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations one ; Connecticut five ; New
York six; New Jersey four; Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one;
Maryland six ; Virginia ten ; North, Carolina five ; South Carolina
five ; and Georgia three.

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the
executive authority thereof shall issue writ3 of election to fill up such
vacancies.

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECTION III.

1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators
from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof,. for six years; and
each senator shall have one vote.

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the
first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at
the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration
of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth
year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if va-
cancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the
legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary
appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall
then fill such vacancies.

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States,
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for
which he shall be chosen.

4. The vice president of the United States shall be president of the
senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president
pro tempore, in the absence of the vice president, or when he shall
exercise the office of president of the United States.

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
When (he president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall
preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
two thirds of the members present.

7. Judgment in case of impeachment shall not extend further than
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
of honor, trust or profit, under the United States ; but the party con-
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,
judgment, and punishment, according to law.

SECTION IV.
Elections 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators
°f r6"' and an(^ rePresentat-'ves shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature
° ep' thereof; but the congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter

such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.
Meeting of 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
congress, meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall
by law appoint a different day.

SECTION V.
1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quali-
fications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall constitute
a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day
» day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may
provide.

Qualifica-
tions of
Sen.

Presiding
officer of
Sen.

Senate a
court for
trial of im-
peach-
ments.

Judgment
in case of
convic-
tion.

Organiza-
tion of
•ongress.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

411

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its Ruie« ».
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two pr°cee<i-
thirds, expel a member. °"

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time Journal of
to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- congress,
ment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either

house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present,
be entered on the journal.

4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the Adjourn-
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any ^"^
other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

SECTION VI.

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for Compen-
Vheir services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury sation ***
of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, J"^^'
and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- bera.
ance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or re-
turning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house,

they shall not be questioned in any other place.

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he Plurality
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the anthority of the ^"j^u"
United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments V™
whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person
holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either
house during his continuance in office.

SECTION VII.

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of repre- BilU; how
sentatives ; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments, °Jj' S^1***
as on other bills.

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives How bilU
and the senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the pres- become
ident of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, aw*-

he shall return it. with his objections, to that house in which it shall
have originated, who shall enter the objection at large on their journal,
and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two
thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, to-
gether with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house,
it shall become a law But in all such cases, the votes of both houses
shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented
to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it,
unless the congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which
case it shall not be a law.

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Approval
senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on ap"„eTreg^f
question of adjournment.) shall be presented to the president of the *,resident
United States ;* and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved

by him, or heme disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds
of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules and
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

SECTION VIII.
The congress shall have power —

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; to pay the Po*e™.
debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the J^J^J
United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniform °
throughout the United States :

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States:

412

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Emigrants,
how ad-
mitted.

Habeas
corpus.

Attainder.
Capita-
tion.
Regula-
tions re-
garding
duties.

Moneys,

bow

drawn.

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 98T«
eral states, and with the Indian tribes :

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws
on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States :

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin,
and fix the standard of weights and measures :

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States :

7. To establish post offices and post roads :

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing
for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to theii
respective writings and discoveries:

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : To cefine
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and
offences against the law of nations :

10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make
rules concerning captures on land and water:

11. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to
that use shall be for a longer term than two years :

12. To provide and maintain a navy :

13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land
and naval forces :

14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions:

15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service
of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appoint-
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according
to the discipline prescribed by congress:

16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of
government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over
all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in
which the same shaU be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
dock-yards, and other needful buildings: — and,

17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry-
ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested
by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.

SECTION IX.

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states
now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by
the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight,
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding
ten dollars for each person.

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended,
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may
require it.

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed.

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor-
tion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.
No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
to the ports of one state over those of another : nor shall vessels bound
to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in
another.

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published
from time to time.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 413

7 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no Titles of

person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without nob1'-!ty d

the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, pro ' lt*^
01 title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

SECTION X.

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; Powers of
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; ?tat" de'
make anything hut gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; fined>
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obli-
gation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility.

2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any imposts Powers
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary further
for executing its inspection laws; and the neat produce of all duties iefined-
and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the

use of the treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be sub-
ject to the revision and control of the congress. No state shall, with-
out the consent of congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or
ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact
with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of
delay.

ARTICLE II.

SECTION I.

1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United Executst
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four P°wer> in
years, and, together with the vice president, chosen for the same vest^
term, be elected as follows :

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof How
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of sen- elected-
ators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the
congress; but no senator, or representative, or person holding an office

of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by Proceed-
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant inSa of
of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all glfd'of*
the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list House of
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- Rep.
ernment of the United States, directed to the president of the senate.

The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate, and
house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall
then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votea
shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole num-
ber of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such
majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of repre-
sentatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for presi-
dent; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on
the list, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the president.
But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.
In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the
greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice president.
But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the sen-
ate shall choose from them, by ballot, the vice president.

4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, Tim* of
and! the (tay on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be choostnj
tho same throughout the United States. elector*.

35*

414

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Qualifica-
tions of the
president.

Resort in
case of his

disabi.ity.

Salary of
president.

Oath re-
quired.

Duties of
president.

May make
treaties,
appoint
ambassa-
dors,
iudges, &C

May fill
vacancies.

May con-
vene cong.

5. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen cf the
United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be
eligible to the office of president : neither shall any person be eligible
to that office, who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five
years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death,
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
office, the same shall devolve on the vice president, and the congress
may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or
inability, both of the president and vice president, declaring what
officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall act accord-
ingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall be elected.

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not
receive within that period any other emolument from the United
States, or any of them.

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
following oath or affirmation :

9. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office of president of the United States, and will, to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect, and defend, the constitution of the United
States."

SECTION II.

1. The president shall be commander-in-chief 'of the army and navy
of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when
called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for
offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present
concur : and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent
of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the
United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided
for, and which shall be established by law. But the congress may, by
law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think prop-
er, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of
departments.

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions which
shall expire at the end of their next session.

SECTION III.
1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information of
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on ex-
traordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and, in
case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of ad-
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ;
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take
care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the
officers of the United States.

How offi-
cers mtj
be re-
moved.

SECTION IV.
1. The president, vice president, and all civil officers of the United
States, shall be removed from office on impeachrjTent for, and convic-
tion of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 415

ARTICLE III.

SECTION I.
I. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Judicial
supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may, from power,
Mine to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme *°™ui
and inferior courts, shall hold their oflices during good behavior; and
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

SECTION II.

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity, To what
arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and trea- ca*es u
ties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to alf cases

of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the
United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more
slates; between a slate and citizens of another state; between citizens
of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands
under grants of different states; and between a state, or the citizens
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and Jurisdie-
consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court *'on o{ tb*
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the oiher cases before-men- Court™*
tioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to

law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as
the congress shall make.

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by Rule*
jury, and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes "?pecting
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any la '
state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress may by

law have directed.

SECTION III.

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying Treason
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid defined.
and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in

open court.

2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of trea- How pun
son; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or lsll*d,
forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.

ARTICLE IV.
SECTION I.
1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public Righu of
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the «tatel* d**
congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such ne '
acts, records, and proceedings, shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

SECTION II.

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and Privilege
immunities of citizens in the several states. ef citizen*.

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other Executive
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, requisi-
on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, t'on*

be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the
crime.

3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws Law re»u.
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or lating ier.
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall vice, orl*-
be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor "•*•
may be due.

416

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

New

dates, how
formed
and ad-
mitted.

Power of
congress
ever putt-
lie lands.

Republi-
can gov.

guaran-
tied.

SECTION III.

1. New states maybe admitted by the congress into'this union; but
no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any
other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more
states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the
states concerned, as well as of the congress.

2. The congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belong-
ing to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so
construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any
particular state.

SECTION IV.
1. The United States shall guaranty to every state In this union a
republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against
invasion; and. on application of the legislature, or of the executive,
(when the legislature cannot be convened,) against domestic violence.

ARTICLE V.
Conititu- 1. The congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it
tion ; how necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on the
Imead d application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states,- shall
' call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case,
shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution,
when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states,
or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode
of ratification may be proposed by the congress; provided, that no
amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight
hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth
clauses in the ninth section of the first article : and that no state, with-
out its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate.

ARTICLE VI.

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States
under this constitution, as under the confederation.

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall
be made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which shall be
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme
law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby,
anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary not
withstanding.

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem-
bers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial
officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be
bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution: but no re-
ligious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or
public trust under the United States.

ARTICLE VII.
Katifjc*. 1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient
«•«». for the establishment of this constitution between the states so ratify,

ing the same.

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present,
the seventeenth day of September, In the year of our Lord one thou-
sand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the
United States of America, the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have
hereunto subscribed our names.

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President,
and Deputy from Virginia*

Validity of
debts rec-
ognized.

Supreme
law of the
kind de-
fined.

Oath; of

wham re-
quired and
for what.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

417

The constitution was ratified by the prescribed number of states Conrtltti-

, __ _ _ . -— — tt i - r i tion. whfttt

in 178S, and went into operation in 1789. Vermont, the first of the ratified,
new states which joined the union, gave her assent early in 1791.
The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty -five ; ten
did not attend ; sixteen declined signing the constitution, or left the
convention before it was ready to be signed. Thirty-nine signed, as
follows :

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

John Langdon,
Nicholas Gilman.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Nathaniel Gorman,
Rufus King.

CONNECTICUT.

Wm. Samuel Johnson
Roger Sherman.

NEW YORK.

Alexander Hamilton.

NEW JERSEY.

William Livingston,
David Bearley,
William Paterson,
Jonathan Dayton.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Benjamin Franklin,

Thomas Mifflin,
Robert Morris,
George Clymer,
Thomas Fitzsimons,
Jared Ingersoll,
James Wilson,
Governeur Morris.

VIRGINIA.

John Blair,

James Madison, jun.

NORTH CAROLINA.

William Blount,
Ricli'd Dobbs Spaight,
Hugh Williamson.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

DELAWARE.

George Eead.

Gunning Bedford, jun., J°hn, Kutledge,

ohn Dickinson,
Richard Bassett,
Jacob Broom.

MARYLAND.

Charles Cotesworth

Pinckney,
Charles Pinckney,
Pierce Butler.

James M'Henry William Few,

Daniel of St. Thomas Ahpaham T,ali_,

Jenifer,
Daniel Carroll.

Abraham Baldwin.

Attest,

WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

At the first session of the first congress, twelve amendments to tha
constitution were recommended to the states, ten of which were
adopted; the others have since been adopted.

Art. 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the free-
dom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Art. 2. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a
free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.

Art. 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house
Without the consent of theovvner; nor in time of war, but in a manner
to be prescribed by law.

Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall
not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause,
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury,
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia,
when in actual service, in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any
Derson be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of

Freeao <-
in religion
— speech-*
press.

Militia.

Soldiers.

Search
warrant.

Capital

crimes.

418

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Trial by
Juiy.

Suits at
common
law.

BaU.

Certain

rights de-
fined.
Rights re-
served.

Judicial
power lim-

Amend-
mentto
an. II.
sect. 4, re-
specting
election of
president
and vice
president.

life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a
witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property,
without dVe process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for
public use, without just compensation.

Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and dis-
trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit-
nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
in his favor; and to have the assistance of council for his defence.

Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ;
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court
of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im-
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Art. 9? The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the con-
stitution, nor prohibited by it to tlie states, are reserved to the states
respectively, or to the people.

Art. 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be con-
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prose-
cuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or
by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.

Art. 12. § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and
vote by ballot for president and vice president, one of whom, at least,
shall not bean inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in
distinct ballots the person voted for as vice president; and they shall
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all per-
sons voted for as vice president, and of the number of votes for each,
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat
of the government of the United States, directed to the president of
the senate ; the president of the senate shall, in the presence of tho
senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the
votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of
votes for president shall be the president, if such number be a majority
of the whole number of electors appointed : and if no person have such
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not ex-
ceeding three, on the list of those voted for as president, the house of
representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president.
But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.
And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president when-
ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day
of March next following, then the vice president shall act as president,
as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of tho
president.

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice president
shall be the vice president, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then
from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose tha
vice president : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of
the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole numbei
shall be necessary to a choice.

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president,
•hall be eligible to that of vice president of the United States.

THE END.

Z SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO.

WORCESTER'S IMPROVED SERIES OF READ-
ING BOOKS, WITH RUSSEL.I/S ELOCUTION-
ARY ADDITIONS.

The attention of County Superintendents, School Committees, Teachers,
and others interested in Education, is requested to the following series of
Readers, by Rev. Samuel Worcester; viz.,

WORCESTER'S PRIMER, or First Book, 72 pages, IS mo.

WORCESTER'S SECOND BOOK, for Reading and Spell ng, 168 pages,
18 mo

WORCESTER'S INTRODUCTION TO THIRD BOOK, for Reading
and Spelling, with Rules and Instructions, <fcc, &c. 264 pages, 18 mo.

WORCESTER'S THIRD BOOK, for Reading and Spelling, with Rules
and Instructions for avoiding errors, and a Vocabulary. 238 pages, 12 mo.

WORCESTER'S FOURTH BOOK, for Reading, with Rules and In-
structions, Rules for Reading Verse, &c, fee. 486 pages, 12 mo.

The above form a complete series of Reading Books, which are not sur-
passed by any other works for this purpose now before the public. The
series has recently been enlarged and improved, by the insertion of a
course of lessons in Enunciation, Articulation, Pronunciation, Inflection,
Emphasis, Pauses, &c, in the books of the series, adapted to the capacity
of the scholar for whose use the several works are intended, prepared by
Mr. William Russell, a distinguished teacher of Elocution. The prominent
characteristics of the series are as follows ; viz. ,

Excellence of Selections, both in gradation and character; pastoral and
useful subjects, together with descriptions of natural scenery, and objects
tending to promote a fondness of agricultural life, being chosen, rather
than those of a warlike spirit.

They are designed to make reading a Study, and, also, to make Enun-
ciation, Articulation, &c, an important part of learning to read.

Rules for good reading adapted to each lesson, and a list of errors to be
avoided, together with a spelling lesson of words selected from the read-
ing lesson.

They are prepared by a practical and intelligent country teacher, and
are consequently better adapted than most others to the use of country
schools.

Testimony from teachers who have used the book uniformly favorable
— one of whom says, "that his scholars learn more in one month's use
of this series than in thrice the time from any other." Numerous recom-
mendations have been received by the publishers, but a few only are ap-
pended, as we rely upon the merits of the books, and request for them a
candid examination.

The books are printed on good paper, sulwtantially bound, and are fur-
nished at as low rates as any of the less meritorious works. They are in
extensive use in nearly all parts of the United States.

[From Mr. Ambrose Wellington, Principal of the Smith School, Boston.]

"Worcester's Reading Books have been used in the school under my
charge for several months past. I consider them decidedly superior to any
other books of the kind, that I have examined.

"Boston, April 12, 1847."

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO.

WORCESTER'S IMPROVED SERIES OF READ-
ERS, WITH EXERCISES IN ENUNCIATION,
PRONUNCIATION, INFLECTION, ETC.

Jteco?n??iendalions of the above Series.
George B. Emerson, Esq., an eminent teacher of Boston, who, with Dr.
Potter, prepared " The School and Schoolmaster," remarks, in a letter to
the publishers :

" Ever since I became acquainted with Mr. Worcester's books, they
have seemed to me better adapted, than any other series that has come to
my knowledge, to the capacities and wants both of learners and teachers
of Elementary Schools. They are not, like most others intended for this
purpose, a mere compilation ; to a great extent, they are original.

"The remarks to teachers, the notices of errors to be avoided, and the
questions to aid the understanding of the learner, are all of great value ; but
what is of far greater, is the elevated moral tone which pervades these les-
sons, fitting them not only to exercise the mind and communicate the art
of reading, but to do much for that better and usually neglected part of
education, the formation of the moral character, and the education of the
moral affections."

And, in regard to the Introduction to the Third Book, just published,
Mr. Emerson adds, " I welcome this as an addition to an invaluable series."
[From William Russell, Teacher of Elocution.]
In a letter received by the publishers, Mr. Russell remarks — "I con-
sider them the best adapted of any to youthful readers. They are more
simple in matter and style, and more interesting to children, than any
other that I have tried, and finely suited, in particular, to maternal instruc-
tion at home.

" They are, further, excellently adapted to the improvement of young
readers in articulation and pronunciation, as many prevailing errors are
carefully indicated in them. The sentiments embodied in these books are
such as parents would wish to have inculcated during the early part ol lile."

[From Ebenezer Bailey, Author of the " Young Ladies' Class Book," and " First Les-
sons ia Algebra."]

" I have used Worcester's series of Reading Books in my school ever
since they were published, and regard them as among the most valuable
works of the kind with which I am acquainted."

[From Palmer's Prize Essay on Education.]

" Worcester's Primer is an admirable little book for beginners. The
author of the Primer has furnished an excellent series of books."

A writer in the Massachusetts Common School Journal remarks, for
teaching reading, " Worcester's Books seem to possess as high claims as
any others." "And among the highest recommendations of the series,
are the useful hints and notes that accompany each lesson."

[From Joshua Bates, Jr., Esq., Principal of the Brimmer Grammar School, Boston.]

In a letter dated April 9, 1847, Mr. B. says :

"I have examined with much care ' Worcester's Series of Reading
Books,' which you had the politeness to send me. *

" I think them most admirably adapted to our Common Schools.

"The pieces selected are judicious and appropriate, and such as will
secure the attention and interest of the scholar.

"The plan of the series I like much, and think it embodies all that is
necessary to make good readers.

" The last three books I think the best I have ever seen. They contain
a complete, systematic analysis of the principles of Elocution, and I think
will, upon examination, be extensively and deservedly used in our Common
Schools."

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JEIMKS, PALMER & CO.

WORCESTER'S COMPREHENSIVE DICTION-
ARY.

A Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the Eng-
lish Language, with pronouncing Vocabularies of Classical, Scripture, and
Modern Geographical Names. By J. E. Worcester. Carefully revised
and enlarged.

This Dictionary, in regard to those words for the orthography, pronun-
ciation, or definition of which an intelligent reader has the most occasion
to consult a dictionary, is the most complete work of the kind extant. It
contains a very full vocabulary of common English words, many technical
terms, and a copious list of such icords and phrases from foreigners lan-
guages as are often found in English books, very full vocabularies of Clas-
sical and Scripture Proper Nam.es, and a vocabulary of words of
doubtful or various orthography, which, together with the rules and re-
marks, embrace all the difficult and doubtful cases that often occur in
English orthography, and an Appendix containing additional words, and a
pronouncing Vocabulary. The whole work containing over 67,000 words.

"This Dictionary exhibits, in its different parts, ample evidence of in-
quiry, careful comparison, and sound judgment. It contains, in a very
condensed, yet intelligible form, a greater quantity of valuable matter than
any other similar work; and as a Pronouncing Dictionary, it possesses de-
cided advantages over all others, by its superior system of notation, and by
its exhibition of all the principal authorities respecting words of doubtful
and various pronunciation. We do not hesitate to pronounce it, in our
judgment, the most comprehensive, accurate, and useful compendium
icithin out ktiow'ledse*

JOSEPH STORY, LL. D., Professor Law, Cambridge, Mass. SIDNEY
WILLARD, A. M., Professor Hebrew, Latin, &c, Cambridge, Mass. E.
T. CHANNING, A. M., Professor Rhetoric and Oratory, Cambridge, Mass.
JOHN PICKERING, LL. D., Boston. WM. ALLEN, D. D., President Bow-
doin College, Me. J. K. KINGSLEY, LL. D., Professor Latin, Yale College,
Conn. ALONZO POTTER, Professor Rhetoric, Union College, N. York.

C. ANTHON, LL. D., Professor Greek and Latin, Columbia College, New
York. J. P. CUSHING, A. M., President Hampden Sydney College, Va.
JASPER ADAMS, D. D., President Charleston Colleee, S. C. ALONZO
CHURCH, D. D., President University of Georgia. PHILIP LINDSEY,

D. D., President Nashville University, Term. EDWARD BEECHER,
A. M., President Illinois College. Also, highly recommended by PETER
S. DUPONCEAU, LL. D., Philadelphia. H. HUMPHREY. President of
St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. ROBLEY DUNGLISON, Professor
University of Maryland, &c, &c.

WORCESTER'S ELEMENTARY DICTIONARY.

An Elementary Dictionary for Common Schools, with Pronouncing Vo-
cabularies of Classical, Scripture, and Modern Geographical Names. By
J. E. Worcester. 324 pp., 12 mo.

The Elementary Dictionary is, for substance, a reduced form of the
Comprehensive Dictionary, and is especially adapted to the use of Com-
mon Schools. It contains a very full list of the words of the English lan-
guage which are. in good use; and, including its vocabularies, it possesses
important advantages over all other common school dictionaries. The
pronunciation of the words^is carefully given, in a form very easily under-
stood, and in accordance with the best usage and the most approved au-
thorities. The best edition of Walker's School Dictionary, together with
its vocabularies, contains about 31,200 words, upwards of 12,000 less than
this, which contains 44,000 words.

SCHOOL BOOKS. PUBLISHED BY JENKS. PALMER & CO.

EMERSON'S NORTH AMERICAN ARITHMETIC,

The above is the common title of three books, by Frederick Emerson,
late Principal in the department of Arithmetic, Boylston School, Boston.
The books are severally denominated,

EMERSON'S FIRST PART,
EMERSON'S SECOND PART,
EMERSON'S THIRD PART.

Part First is a small book, designed for children from five to eight
years of age. The plan of this little book is entirely original and very pe-
culiar. The lessons are illustrated with cuts anJ unit marks, and are ren-
dered at once interesting and impressive.

Part Second contains within itself a complete system of Mental and
Written Arithmetic, sufficiently extensive for all common purposes of busi-
ness, and is designed as a standard book for common schools. This work
is so gradual in its progress, that each lesson prepares the learner for that
which follows, and comparatively little instruction is required from the
teacher.

Part Third is designed for advanced scholars. It comprises a synthetic
view of the science of numbers, a copious development of the higher opera-
tions, and an extensive range of commercial information. Scholars, who
are to be educated for the business of the counting-room, or for the duties
of any public office, as well as those who are to prosecute a full course of
mathematical studies, will find this book suited to their purpose.

Almost every other system of arithmetic is printed wholly in one book,
and if the system be plain and copious, the book must be a large one.
Every scholar, therefore, must buy a large and expensive book, while not
one scholar in ten can ever have occasion or opportunity to study more
than half of it. Emerson's system being printed in three books, no scholar
is obliged to buy more of the system than he has opportunity to learn.

This system of Arithmetic has been adopted by the Boston School Board,
to take the place of Colburn's First Lessons and Sequel ; by the Providence
Board, to take the place of Smith's Arithmetic; and by the Philadelphia
Board, to take the place of Pike's. The recommendations of the work are
from gentlemen who do not lend their names to indifferent publications.
They are such as the following: —

To Mr. Frederick Emerson: Sir, — I have received the First and
Second Parts of your North American Arithmetic, and am highly pleased
with the plan of the work, and the manner of its execution thus far. It
unites simplicity with fulness, and will thus be sure to interest. the begin-
ner, while it furnishes, at the same tirne, an ample guide to the more ad-
vanced pupil.

Respectfully and truly yours, ALBERT HOPKINS,

Late Prof, of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
Williamstown College.

[Conclusion of a Letter to the Author.]
I should think it hardly possible that a child could be faithfully con-
ducted through these two works [First and Second Parts! without being
vastly better acquainted with the subject than children formerly were.
Being judiciously compelled in some measure to invent their own rules,
they can scarcely fail of being able to assign a proper reason for the pro-
cess, as well as to recollect it for future use. Indeed, I do not know any
one particular in which, for the use of very young pupils, they could be
improved. Yours respectfully, JAMES DEAN,

Late Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ir>
the University of Vermont.

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO.

EMERSON'S ARITHMETIC.

Part I. for beginners. Part II. for all scholars. Part III. containing
the higher operations.

To the Publishers op Emerson's Arithmetic : Gentlemen, — I have
examined the Third Part of Mr. Emerson's Arithmetic with great pleas-
ure. The perspicuity of its arrangements, and the clearness and brevity
of its explanations, combined with its happy adaptation to the purpose
of practical business, are its great recommendation. I hope it will soon be
introduced into all our schools, and take the place of ill-digested treatises,
to which our instructors have hitherto besn compelled to resort.

Respectfully, BENJAMIN PIERCE,

Professor of Mathematics and Nat. Philosophy, Harvard University.

[From the Masters of the Public Schools of Boston, in the Department of Arithmetic]
Emerson's System of Arithmetic [First, Second, and Third Part] has
been in use in the Public Schools of Boston for several years, and it affords
us pleasure to say, that our opinion of its value has been confirmed by ob-
serving its effects in the business of instruction. It is written in a perspic-
uous style; its illustrations are lucid, its arrangement is judicious, and the
gradation of its exercises is exact. We consider the work to be justly en- y
titled to the high reputation it has acquired, and we sincerely recommend y
it to the attention of teachers who have not had opportunity to become
acquainted with its merits.

P. MACKINTOSH. Jr., Hancock School.
JAMES ROBINSON, Bowdoin School.
LEVI CONANT, Eliot School. v

AARON D. CAPEN, Mayhtw School. O

JOSIAH FAIRBANK, Adams School. V

JOHN A. HARRIS, Haices School. V

REUBEN SWAN, Jr., Wells School. V

NATHAN MERRILL, Franklin School. X
LORING LOTHROP, Endicott School. A

CHARLES KIMBALL, Boylston School. 6
JOSEPH HALE, Johnson School. y

SAMUEL L. GOULD Winthrop School. y
Boston, Jas. 23, 1842. Y

Emerson's Arithmetic, Part Third, has for several years been a text-book y

in the Boston English High School. I think tkat it is a highly useful book Y

for those scholars who have faithfully learned the Second Part, which, in X

my opinion, is an excellent work. THOMAS SHERWIN, /

Principal of the Boston English High School. y

Recommended also by Messrs. Luther Robinson. Sub-master, and
Francis S. Williams, Usher, of the Boston English High School

[From the Masters of the Public Schoois of Proviilence.]
Emerson's Arithmetic has been used for several years in the Public
Schools of Providence, and we regard it as decidedly the best system of
Arithmetic with which we are acquainted.

J. D. Giddings. Fountain st. School.
D. Burbank, Prospect st. "

Amos Perry, Summer st. "

C. T. Keith, Benefit st. School.
C. Farnum, Jr., Elm st. "
N. B. Nichols, Arnold st. •'
Providence, Dec. 15, 1842.

KEY TO EMERSON'S ARITHMETIC, containing Solutions and 6
Answers, for the use of Teachers. Also, Questions to the Third Part J

-'do. y

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO.

PARLEY'S HISTORIES FOR COMMON SCHOOLS.

THE FIRST BOOK OF HISTORY, OR HISTORY. ON THE BASIS
OF GEOGRAPHY, comprehending the countries of the Western Hemi-
f sphere, with sixty Engravings, from original designs, and sixteen Maps of
/ the different sections of the United States and the various countries of the
X Western Hemisphere, executed in the most beautiful manner, on steel
/) plates ; revised edition.

The work contains the history of all the countries in North and South
America, including Greenland, Iceland, and the West Indies, down to the
present time. It is on the inductive plan, beginning at home and leading
the pupil gradually into the subject, while the introduction of numerous
cuts, authentic and modern maps, lively anecdotes, and descriptions of
natural scenery, curiosities, manners and customs, render it the most at-
tractive and useful introduction to history ever published ; and a3 Geogra-
phy and History ought never to be separated, the child naturally desiring
to know something of the history of the countries which are described to
him, there are exercises previous to each lesson, to test and fix his geo-
graphical knowledge in his mind; for he can have but little correct and
lasting knowledge of the history of a country with whose geography he is
unacquainted.

THE SECOND BOOK OF HISTORY; comprehending the Modern
History of Europe, Asia, Africa, &c, illustrated with fifty Engravings and
sixteen Maps, (from steel plates,) of the different countries.

This book is designed as a Sequel to the " First Book of History. By
the Author of Parley's Tales," and is on the same plan.

THE THIRD BOOK OF HISTORY; by the same author, and on the
same plan; comprehending Ancient History, in connection with Ancient
Geography ; with Maps and Engravings.

In preparing this series of Histories, two prominent things have been
kept constantly in view, — in the first place to make it useful — and in
the second, to make it entertaining. To accomplish these ends, each of
the books is provided with finely and distinctly engraved maps, and the
pupil, before he enters upon the history of any state or country, is required
l\ to learn its shape, boundaries, rivers, &c. He is then briefly made ac-
/> quainted with its present state, its towns and cities, and the occupations of <

V its inhabitants.

v A familiar style has been adopted and great care taken to introduce pre-
jt cise dates. A large number of engravings have been inserted for illustra-
A tion, and for fixing certain prominent ideas permanently in the memory of j
/> the pupil.

Each book of the series is furnished with questions on both the History
and Geography of the countries described, and a chronological table is

Y added recapitulating the principal events noticed in the body of the work.
y The first editions of the First and Second Books were published several

Y years ago, since which time they have run through nearly two hundred edi-
A lions, and acquired a very extensive circulation.

A The maps have been retouched or newly engraved, and care has been
o taken to have such corrections and additions made as the change in the
y state of the several countries treated of in the works render necessary.
y The present editions, therefore, may be considered as adapted to the exist-

V ing condition of the Political Geography of the Western and Eastern Hemi-
J£ spheres, the works having been enlarged so as to embrace the leading events
A of interest not before noticed, that have happened within the last few
A years.

&<S>2<S>C>0<>C*>vXS>C«*>C^^

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER 8t CO.

BAILEY'S ALGEBRA, FOR COMMON SCHOOLS.;

FIRST LESSONS IN ALGEBRA; designed for the use of Academies ',
and Common Schools. By E. Bailey, late Principal of the Young Ladies' ,
High School, Boston. Thirty-first Stereotype Edition. «

A KEY TO THE FIRST LESSONS IN ALGEBRA, containing An- !
swers to the Questions, and Solutions of all the difficult Problems.

This is an elementary treatise, on the inductive plan. It is especially
intended for the use of Common Schools, and of teachers who have not had
an opportunity to become acquainted with the science. In his preface, the
author remarks, " / have aimed to prepare a work, which any boy of
twelve years, who is thoroughly acquainted tvith the fundamental rules
of Arithmetic, can understand, even without tlie aid of a teacher." The
book has been used, with entire success, in schools whose teachers had nc
knowledge of Algebra when it was introduced.

By a vote of the School Committee of Boston, Bailey's Algebra has been
used in the Public Schools of the city.
It is highly recommended by

FREDERICK EMERSON, Author of N. A. Arithmetic.

F. P. LEVERETT, Author of Leverett's Lexicon, §>c.

N. CLEVELAND, Principal of Dummer Academy, Newbury.

PROF. E. A. ANDREWS, Author of Series of Latin Books.

BENJAMIN GREENLEAF, Principal of Bradford, Mass., Academy.

SAMUEL R. SWETT, Principal of Normal School, Ki?igsboro', N. Y.

D. HUNTINGTON, Principal of New London, Ct., Female Academy.
JOHN W. IRWIN, Principal of Danbury, Ct., Academy.

E. E. BEARDSLY, Principal of Episcopal Academy, Cheshire, Ct.
And also by the Teachers of the Boston Public Schools.

EMERSON'S SPELLING BOOK.

THE NATIONAL SPELLING BOOK AND PRONOUNCING TUTOR ;
containing Rudiments of Orthography and Pronunciation on an improved
plan, by which the sound of every syllable is distinctly shown, according
to Walker's Principles of English Orthoepy; with Progressive Reading
Lessons. Designed for the use of Schools in the United States. By B. D.
Emerson. Revised from the one hundred and sixtieth edition.

Extensively used throughout the United States.

THE AMERICAN ELOCUTIONIST.

Comprising "Lessons in Enunciation," "Exercises in Elocution," and
"Rudiments of Gesture," with a Selection of new Pieces for Practice in
reading and declamation; and engraved illustrations in attitude and action,
for Colleges, Academies, and Common Schools, by William Russell,
Teacher of Elocution.

Lessons in Enunciation can also be had in a separate volume.

MUSIC BOOK FOR SCHOOLS.

The Little Songster: An Elementary Singing Book, for Scholars of six
to nine years of age, by Geo. J. Webb.

The Common School Songster, intended as a Sequel to the above. By
the same. Just published.

The Vocal Class Book, designed for Young Ladies' Schools and Acad-
emies. By do.

SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO.

GOODRICH'S SCHOOL. HISTORY OP THE UNI-
TED STATES.

A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ; on a plan
adapted to the capacity of youth, and designed to aid the memory, by sys-
tematic arrangement and interesting association. By Charles A. Goodrich.
Revised and enlarged from the one hundredth edition. Containing general
views of the Aboriginal Tribes; Sketches of the Discoveries and Settlement
made by different nations ; the progress of the Colonies ; the Revolution ;
the several Administrations to and partly through President Polk's. The
whole interspersed with notices of the different eras of the progress of
Manners, Religion, Commerce, Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures, Pop-
ulation and Education. ■.

This valuable and popular school book has undergone a careful and thor-
ough revision by the author, after having passed through more than one
hundred editions, comprising upwards of two hundred and fifty thousand
copies. Its value has been much increased by the corrections and additions
which have been made, bringing the History of the United States down to
1847 ; and the work is now the m«st approved, and probably the most exten-
sively in use, of any school book of the kind. The constantly increasing
demand for it is the best test of its excellence and ailaptedness to the pur-
pose for which it was designed.

QUESTIONS ON THE ENLARGED AND IMPROVED EDITION
OF GOODRICH'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,
to which are added Outline Tables, for general review, on a New Plan.

This book of Questions is by the author of the History, by whom it was
prepared at the time of the revision of that work. The questions are dis-
tributed in Periods and Sections, corresponding to the periods and sections
of the History. In addition to the questions which relate particularly to
the text of the History, other and more general questions are interspersed,
designed to exercise the skill and judgment of the pupil, and test the
fidelity with which he has attended to the study. In audition to the Ques-
tions, the book contains a Plan for General Review, consisting of Outline
Tables in relation to various subjects treated of in this History.

QUESTIONS AND SUPPLEMENT TO GOODRICH'S HISTORY
OF THE UNITED STATES. By the Rev. Joseph Emerson, Principal of
the Female Seminary, Wethersfield, Conn.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Grund's Geometry, Parts I. and II. Do. Philosophy. Do. Chemis-
try. Do. Arithmetic. Do. Algebra.

Sullivan's Class Books, Political, Moral, and Historical.
. Frost's Grammar. Bossuet's French Phrase Book.

Holbrook's Geometry. Abbott's Little Philosopher. Notes'
Penmanship. Parley's Arithmetic.

Hildreth's United States. Hall's Lectures to Teachers.

Blair's Outunes of History. Johnson's and Walker's School
Dictionary. The Child's Botany.

School Committees, Teachers, &c, desirous of examining any of the
above, will be supplied without charge.

In addition to the above, always for sale at satisfactory prices, a com-
plete assortment of School, Music, and Miscellaneous Books, Station-
ery, &c.

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